Chemistry
Chemistry (хемія or хімія; khemiia or khimiia). A scientific discipline concerned with the physical and chemical properties of substances, their transformations, and the development and control of such transformations to attain specific goals.
Practical utilization of chemical knowledge was made in Ukraine long ago in connection with the production and use of metals, their alloys, enamel, gunpowder, etc.
A significant role in the development of chemical sciences in Ukraine was played by scholarly societies of natural scientists that existed in Kharkiv, Kyiv, and Odesa. Since 1897 the mathematics–natural sciences–medicine division of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv and New York has published transactions that have included articles on chemistry and on Ukrainian chemical terminology.
The first scientific studies in chemistry were done at the beginning of the 19th century at Kharkiv University by Vasyl Karazyn and F. Giese. From 1864 to 1887 Nikolai Beketov investigated thermochemistry and the theory of solutions there; later on his students and co-workers studied reaction kinetics, adsorption, and topochemical and molecular polymorphism. Significant also were the studies of Mykola Izmailov in the area of acids/bases and electrolytes. Other renowned scientists at Kharkiv University were Oleksander Danylevsky (physiological chemistry, 1886–92), V. Palladin (biochemistry, 1889–97), and Aleksandr Eltekov and Konstantin Krasusky (organic chemistry). The first textbook of physiological chemistry, by A. Khodnev of Kharkiv University, was published in 1847.
At Kyiv University in 1867–89 Volodymyr Kistiakovsky worked in the area of biochemistry, on the metabolism of carbohydrates, especially of glycogen. Important studies of molecular dissociation were conducted by M. Kaiander in 1879–84, and Ya. Mykhailenko investigated solution thermodynamics and Aleksandr Speransky the theory of solutions (1905–19). I. Borshchov worked from 1869 in colloidal chemistry. This area was extensively developed by Anton Dumansky, who in 1912 began to teach the subject at Kyiv University and subsequently published a monumental monograph, Colloidal Solutions. Noted organic chemists at Kyiv University were P. Alekseev and N. Bunge, as well as the world-renowned Sergei Reformatsky, who discovered the synthesis of b-oxyacids by means of zinc-organic compounds.
At Odesa University during the later part of the 19th century and in the early part of the 20th century research in organic chemistry was carried out by P. Melikishvili and N. Zelinsky; in colloidal chemistry, by F. Shvedov; and in physical chemistry, by O. Sakhanov (electrochemistry of non-aqueous solutions), A. Rabinovich (conductivity anomalies), O. Frumkin (electrocapillary phenomena), and Lev Pysarzhevsky (peroxides and peracids). During his 1913–34 stay in Dnipropetrovsk, Pysarzhevsky established the Institute of Physical Chemistry, where, together with his coworkers, he created the scientific basis for electronic chemistry and catalysis.
At Lviv University in the 1850s and 1860s L. Pebal conducted studies in organic and analytical chemistry. From 1872 to 1910 B. Radziszewski researched various problems of general and pharmaceutical chemistry; of significance also was the work of S. Tolochko in physical chemistry and of V. Kemula and E. Linneman in organic chemistry.
A noted Ukrainian biochemist at Prague University was Ivan Ya. Horbachevsky, who in 1882 synthesized uric acid from carbamide and glycine.
After the Revolution of 1917 the level and development of chemical sciences in Ukraine were uneven. Most research was still conducted at the universities and polytechnical institutes, although the function of doing fundamental research was later taken over by the newly founded scientific research institutes of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. These were formed according to then-existing needs and possibilities; today, functioning within the context of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, they encompass the highest level of chemical research in Ukraine. They possess the best means for doing research, and they usually collaborate with the universities, polytechnical institutes, and other research centers, frequently co-ordinating their efforts on specific tasks.
The scientific research institutes of chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine represent branches into which modern chemistry is divided; in their research they have responded to the needs of the chemical industry, taking into account the characteristics of indigenous minerals and other types of natural resources found in Ukraine. Not all branches of chemistry have their own institutes. For instance, work in analytical chemistry is done at the institutes of physical and inorganic chemistry (theory and application of complexes, photometric analytical methods, polarography), although chairs of analytical chemistry exist at all major universities, at four polytechnical institutes, and at some technical institutes.
The branch of chemistry and chemical technology at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine consists of eight centers, six of them in Kyiv: the Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; the Institute of Physical-Organic Chemistry and Coal Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Donetsk; the Institute of Colloidal Chemistry and Hydrochemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; the Institute of Biochemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; the Institute of Gas of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine; and the Physical-Chemical Institute (est 1977) in Odesa.
The Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy od Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was established in 1927 in Dnipropetrovsk; since 1944 it has been located in Kyiv. Its first director (after whom it is now named) was Lev Pysarzhevsky. It consisted in 1967 of the following departments: heterogeneous catalysis—the mechanism and macrokinetics of industrial processes (Volodymyr Roiter, H. Korniichuk); hydrogenation—the relationship between structure and the surface condition of the hydrogenation catalysts, catalysts for various industrial processes, the electronic theory of catalysis (M. Rusov, Vasyl Vlasenko); oxidative catalysis—the catalysts and mechanism of olefin oxidation, the theory of gas-phase chromatographic analysis (M. Rubanyk); liquid-phase catalysis—heterogeneous catalytic processes in the liquid phase, correlation of their specific features in the gaseous and liquid phases (Yaroslav Horokhovatsky); sorbent synthesis—the preparation and modification of sorbents based on silica, alumina, etc (Izrail Neimark); adsorption and ion exchange—electrochemical adsorption on carbon and on ion exchangers as a function of the surface layer; studies of colloids (D. Strazhesko); chemical structure and reactivity— isotope exchange, the structure-reactivity relationship, reaction mechanisms, as well as studies of quantum chemistry (Oleksander Brodsky, I. Hraherov, B. Heller); photochemistry—studies of chlorophyll, photosynthesis, and photolytic reactions (B. Dain); radiation chemistry—modification of polymers by radiation (A. Kabakchi).
Outstanding scientists who have worked at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine include I. Obreimov, Antonina Prykhotko, M. Vuks (spectroscopy), Serhii Urazovsky, O. Holyk (solid- and liquid-state physical chemistry), A. Mashovets, O. Afanasev (electrochemistry), V. Finkelshtein (theory of electrolytes), and Petr Budnykov (physical chemistry of silicates). From 1966 the institute had a branch of physical-organic and coal chemistry in Donetsk, where the mechanism and kinetics of organic reactions were studied (Leonid M. Lytvynenko, Roman Kucher, S. Baranov). Since 1977 this branch has been a separate institute—the Institute of Physical-Organic Chemistry and Coal Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR—with a sector of petrochemistry in Kyiv. The institute’s director was L. Lytvynenko; the sector’s director was Viktor Hutyria.
The Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was established in 1931 in Kyiv. Until 1945 it was called the Institute of Chemistry. Its directors have included Vladimir Plotnikov, Volodymyr Yavorsky, Andrii Kiprianov, Anton Dumansky, Yurii Delimarsky, and Oleksander Horodysky. In 1965 the institute consisted of 6 departments, which encompassed 25 sections. The department of the chemistry of complex compounds (two sections) is concerned with the theory and practice of complex formation and research on sensitive analytical methods utilizing spectrometric, spectrophotometric, and polarographic methods (Yakiv Fiialkov, Anatolii Babko, Kostiantyn Yatsymyrsky). The department of electrochemistry (two sections) deals with the kinetics and thermodynamics of electrode processes in molten electrolytes, including new methods of studying electrochemical kinetics; polarography; electrometallurgy; studies on the corrosion of metallic alloys; the structure of electrolytes (Yu. Delimarsky, M. Hratsiansky, B. Markov). The department of colloidal chemistry (three sections) studies the electrical and rheological properties of dispersed metals; minerals and polyelectrolytes; and the stabilization of disperse systems and their practical application (A. Dumansky, Fedir Ovcharenko, Onysym Kurylenko, E. Natanson). The department of the physical chemistry of metallurgical processes (four sections) studies a number of problems connected with the manufacturing processes of non- ferrous and rare metals, particularly of those indigenous to Ukraine (Ivan Sheka, M. Fortunatov, Viktor Sazhin, Ya. Horoshchenko). The department of the chemistry and technology of rare metals (seven sections) conducts research on ways to improve the processes of producing rare metals and their compounds (Nikolai Poluektov, Vasyl Nazarenko). The department of the chemistry and technology of water, with four sections in Vyshhorod, conducts research on the purification of drinking and industrial waters (Leonid Kulsky).
The Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was established in 1939, replacing the Institute of Chemical Technology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, and is now located in Kyiv. The directors of the institute have included Volodymyr Yavorsky, Andrii Kiprianov, and Oleksander Kirsanov. The main departments in the institute were those of the chemistry of organophosphorus compounds (O. Kirsanov), element-organic isocyanates (Hryhorii Derkach), organophosphorus complexing agents (N. Feshchenko), organophosphorus precipitants and non-flammable liquids (Ya. Ivashchenko), the chemistry of herbicides (V. Cherkasov), chemical intermediates (S. Solodushenkov), fluorine-containing intermediates and dyes (Lev Yahupolsky), color and structure of organic compounds (A. Kiprianov), mechanisms of organic reactions (Evgenii Shilov), synthetic physiologically active compounds (O. Svyshchuk), photosynthesis (Aleksandr Yasnikov), and the modeling of technologically important organic synthetic processes (R. Melnykov).
The Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine has existed in Kyiv since 1958. Its first director was Kostiantyn Korniev; after 1965 the director was Yurii Lipatov. The main departments of this institute were polymer synthesis (K. Korniev), the physical chemistry of polymers (Y. Lipatov), polymer physics (Yu. Yegorov), the kinetics and mechanism of polymerization (Tatiana Lipatova), elastomers (T. Hrytsenko), three-dimensional polymers (S. Omelchenko), oligomeric compounds (Yu. Spirin), polymer modification (O. Kachan), and the technology of monomers and polymers (A. Shevliakov).
In the early 1960s the main thrust of research was in the areas of the synthesis of thermally stable polymers; the chemical, photochemical, and radiation-chemical modification of polymers; the synthesis of selective ion-exchange resins; and technological developments in the synthesis of monomers and polymers. After 1965 the institute studied the causes for the specific physical and chemical properties of polyurethanes and investigated the relationship between the chemical structure of polyurethanes and their specific properties; worked on the syntheses of new di- and tri-isocyanates and of oligomeric compounds; studied the mechanism and kinetics of the migrational polymerization and reactivity of the reactants; and established the basic relationships in the conversion of polyurethanes to valuable polymeric products: elastomers, synthetic fibers, etc. The subdivision of petrochemistry (Viktor Hutyria) was concerned with the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their chemical transformations.
The Institute of Gas of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was established in 1949 under the directorship of M. Dobrokhotov; from 1952 it was directed by Viktor Kopytov. The main research areas of the institute were studies of chemical transformations of hydrocarbon gases, the utilization of combustible gases in industry, the automation of chemical conversion, and the combustion of gases.
The Institute of Colloidal Chemistry and Hydrochemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR replaced the section of the physical chemistry of dispersion systems and the section of hydrochemistry and hydrotechnology of the Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1968. Under the directorship first of Fedir Ovcharenko and later of Onysym Kurylenko and Anatolii Pylypenko, the institute was concerned with theoretical experimental studies in the area of colloidal chemistry, the physical chemistry of natural sorbents, colloidal metals, and water purification.
Some areas of chemistry wre studied in non-chemistry scientific research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Thus, for instance, research concerned with the synthesis of borides, carbides, silicides, nitrides, and sulfides of certain rare and rare-earth elements was conducted at the Institute of Materials Science of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Physical properties of polymers were studied at the Institute of Mechanics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR.
The founder of geochemistry was Volodymyr Vernadsky, who from 1919 studied the composition of various minerals and cataloged their abundance in the earth’s crust. Later problems of geochemistry were investigated in the Institute of Geological Sciences of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, particularly the geochemistry of inert gases, scandium, and germanium.
Scientific papers in the area of chemistry wre published in the following journals: Ukrainskii khimicheskii zhurnal (1948–), formerly Ukraïns’kyi khimichnyi zhurnal (Kharkiv 1925–38), the bimonthly Ukrainskii biokhimicheskii zhurnal (1946–), the bimonthly Teoreticheskaia i eksperimental’naia khimiia (1965–), the bimonthly Farmatsevtychnyi zhurnal (1930–41 and 1959–), formerly Farmatsevticheskii zhurnal (1928–9), and Visnyk Akademiï nauk URSR (1947–). The following publications have been discontinued: Zapysky Instytutu khimiï Akademiï nauk URSR (1934–48), Naukovo- tekhnichnyi visnyk (Kharkiv 1926–36), and Visti Instytutu fizychnoï khimiï (1936–47).
Publications in the area of chemistry also appeared, albeit irregularly, in the scientific periodicals of Kyiv University, Kharkiv University, and Dnipropetrovsk University and, from 1948, of Lviv University, Chernivtsi University, and Uzhhorod University, as well as of Kyiv Polytechnical Institute, Odesa Polytechnical Institute, Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute, and Lviv Polytechnical Institute. (See also Biochemistry.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rozvytok nauky v URSR za sorok rokiv (Kyiv 1957)
Turchenko, Ya. Osnovnye puti razvitiia obshchei, neorganicheskoi i fizicheskoi khimii na Ukraine (Kyiv 1957)
Istoriia Kyïvs'koho universytetu (Kyiv 1959)
Istoriia Akademiï nauk URSR (Kyiv 1967)
Akademiia nauk URSR (Kyiv 1969)
Tonkal’, V.; Pelykh, V.; and Stohnii, B. Akademiia nauk Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kyiv 1980)
Swiatoslaw Trofimenko
[This article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 1 (1984).]