Cartography

Cartography.

Maps of Ukraine until the mid-17th century. One of the oldest maps of the ancient period is an outline of the Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea found in Mesopotamia on a Roman shield. Another map representing Ukraine is a traveler’s map of the Roman Empire of the 4th century, which is known as Tabula Peutingeriana.

During the Middle Ages the territory of Ukraine was marked on the hand-drawn maps of the world prepared by the Arabic geographers al-Istakhrī of the 10th century and al-Idrīsī (1154, 1192). The former introduced the name Rus’.

In the 14th century Ukraine appeared in the portolano of ‘Pisane’ (1300), G. Laurenciano of Florence (1351), Marino Sanuto’s (1320) and Pietro Vesconte’s (1311) maps of the world, and the Catalonian atlas (Mappemundi) of 1375.

In the 15th century several maps of the world depicted Ukraine: the Catalonian map of 1450, Pirrus de Noha’s map (ca 1414), and Henricus Germanus’s map of 1489. The portolani of Conte di Ottomano Freducci (1497), the ‘Borgia map’, (1457), and Luigi Alberto Benincazo (1476) gave some information about Ukraine. The ‘Genoese’ map of the Atlantic (1490) and Martin Beheim’s globe also included Ukraine.

In the 16th century new cartographical works appeared in which Ukrainian lands were represented: Juan de la Cosa's portolano (ca 1500); Giovanni Matteo Contarini’s map of the world (1506); Diogo Ribero’s map of the world (1527); Battista Agnese’s map of Muscovy (1525); Sigismund Herberstein’s map (1549); the ‘Salviati planisphere’ (1527); the maps of Bernard Sylvanus (1511), Albrecht Dürer (1515, designed by Johannes Stabius), and Sancho Gutierrez; the portolano of Vesconte Maggiolo (1512); a map of the Atlantic that included the Black Sea and the most detailed description of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov along with southern Ukraine (Rusia) by the Greek cartographer G. Kalapoda (1552). Ukraine was depicted on the maps of Paolo Forlani (1565) and Andreas Pograbius (1569).

Regional maps that included Ukrainian lands were published by the Polish historian Bernard Wapowski (ca 1475–1535). His maps of Poland and Lithuania encompassed Ukraine as far east as the Dnipro River and the Black Sea. Ukraine was also represented on Martin Waldseemüller’s map of the world, Carta marina (1516), and Johannes Ruysch’s map of the world (1508). The eastern part of Ukraine was presented on the maps of Anton Wied (1555, 1594) and the English traveler Anthony Jenkinson (1562). Western Ukraine was encompassed by Wacław Grodecki's map (1562), which was printed in Abraham Ortelius’s atlas (1527, 1598), and central Ukraine by Gerardus Mercator’s (1512–94) map. Mercator also published maps of Europe and the world that covered all Ukraine. The Crimea and its adjacent lands were depicted on the map of the Pole Marcin Broniewski (1595). The Lviv region was mapped by A. Passarotti in 1607.

The first cartographers to produce maps based on topographic observation and measurement of Ukrainian territories were Tomasz Makowski (ca 1575–1620) and Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan (ca 1600–73). Makowski prepared a comprehensive map of Lithuania, on a scale of 1:1,300,000, which encompassed northern Ukraine. It was published in Amsterdam in 1613 by Hessel Gerritsz and appeared later in various atlases, most importantly those of Hugo Allard and Nicolas Visscher. Makowski also prepared a map of the Dnipro River, on a scale of 1:1,300,000, for some atlases.

The most important cartographical publication in the 17th century was Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan’s map of Ukraine. His comprehensive map Delineatio specialis et accurata Ukrainae is a detailed representation of Ukraine on a scale of 1:452,000. It was engraved and published by Willem Hondius (1597–1660) in Amsterdam in 1650–53 in 8 sheets and was reproduced in the atlases of Joan Blaeu and Nicholas Sanson. Beauplan’s second map, Delineatio generalis, on a scale of 1:1,800,000, encompassed Ukraine from Red Rus’ (Galicia) to the Black Sea. It was published in Danzig in 1651 and, under a French title, in Rouen in 1660. Later, it was frequently reproduced under the title Typus generalis Ukrainae. His third work was a map of the Dnipro River from Kyiv to its mouth. It occupied three sheets in the multilingual Grand Atlas by Joan Blaeu, two on a scale of 1:226,000 and one 1:452,000, and in a reduced form in the atlases of Johann Jansson and Moses Pitt. Beauplan established the name Ukraine, which appeared first on a map prepared for Charles IX of France in 1572 and then in Blaeu’s atlas of 1613 and the atlas of the Hondius brothers of 1644 under the title Typus generalis Ukrainae.

Mid-17th century to 1917. More detailed maps of eastern Ukraine were made by James Bruce and Cornelius Cruys, a Scotsman and a Dutchman in the Russian service; they were published in Amsterdam. Bruce published a map of western and southern Russia in 1679, which, besides Left-Bank Ukraine, included the Kyiv region and the Bratslav region in Right-Bank Ukraine. Cruys’ atlas of the Don River contained 17 maps. Carel Allard’s map at the beginning of the 18th century encompassed all Ukraine. The eastern regions were depicted in the first Russian atlas, published by Ivan Kirilov in 1734, and in Atlas rossiiskoi (The Russian Atlas), edited by Leonhard Euler and published by the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1745.

The first topographic surveys and mappings of Ukrainian lands were made during the hetmancy of Ivan Mazepa (1687–1709) for administrative use of the Cossack regiments. (The surveys were later the responsibility of the Imperial College of Foreign Affairs.) On the basis of the data that were gathered several maps were prepared, including Atlas Dnepra (Atlas of the Dnipro River), printed in 36 sheets in 1784; General'naia karta Kievskoi gubernii (A General Map of the Kyiv gubernia, 1774), which encompassed the lands of 10 regiments; and Novorossiia (New Russia, 1779). The eastern parts of Ukraine were represented on the first Russian general map (1785), consisting of 8 sheets on the scale of 1:3,150,000, and in Rossiiskii atlas (The Russian Atlas, 1792, 1800), edited by Alexander Wilbrecht, which also included central Ukraine.

More accurate topographical surveys of Ukrainian territories based on triangulation were introduced at the end of the first half of the 18th century. Larger-scale maps were based on these surveys: Giovanni Rizzi-Zannoni’s Carte de la Pologne (on a scale of 1:692,000) in 24 sheets (1770–7), which encompassed all Ukrainian lands under Poland and the larger part of Russian-ruled Ukraine; an Austrian map of Galicia (on a scale of 1:178,000) in 21 sheets (1783); and a Russian general map of western Russia by K. Oppermann (on a scale of 1:840,000) in 114 sheets (1801–16), which encompassed the adjacent Austrian and Polish lands. Oleksii Maksymovych, a Ukrainian, prepared a general map of European Russia on a scale of 1:3,780,000 and published it in 5 sheets in 1816.

The southwestern territories that were annexed by Austria were mapped towards the end of the 18th century. In 1805 Anton Mayer von Heldensfeld’s Operationskarte beider Galizien ... appeared in 34 sheets, on the scale of 1:172,800; it later became the basis of a map drawn to a scale of 1:200,000. In 1790 Joseph Liesganig published Königsreich Galizien und Lodomerien on the scale of 1:288,000. In 1779–83 Friedrich von Mieg prepared a manuscript map in 413 sheets, on the scale of 1:28,000, which later was used as the source for a map with a scale of 1:25,000.

During the 19th century and up to the First World War, Austria, Russia, and Germany published modern, detailed maps that were based on new surveying methods. The most important maps published by the Russian Military Topography Corps were Theodor Shubert’s special maps of Russia in 60 sheets on the scale of 1:420,000 (1832–44), and a map of Eastern Europe on the same scale in the Gauss projection, edited by Gen Ivan Strilbytsky, which appeared in 158 sheets in 1864–71. The latter embraced all Ukrainian territories. The corps also published a topographic map of western Russia on the scale of 1:126,000 in the Bonne projection (1845–63). It was printed in 435 sheets, and relief was rendered by hachures. The corps’ best topographic map was published in 1845–82 and 1907–17. It covered the western territories belonging to the Russian Empire starting from the Kyiv–Odesa line on the scale of 1:84,000 using the Muefling projection. It was printed in two colors. Relief was marked by contours and measured in sazhens (1 sazhen = 2.13 meters). New methods of triangulation and new topographic data were used in its preparation. Like other maps this map was oriented on the Pulkovo meridian (30° 19' 42" east of Greenwich) and referred to the Paris or Ferro meridian (17° 39' 57" west of Greenwich). The most accurate maps published in the Russian Empire were the map encompassing the Crimea, Taman Peninsula, Donets Basin, and territories west of Kyiv, published in 84 sheets in 1855 on the scale of 1:42,000, and the map of the western borderlands (western Volhynia, the Kholm region, and Podlachia) and the Crimea on the scale of 1:21,000.

In Austria-Hungary accurate maps of Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia were prepared by the Military Geographic Institute: the map on the scale of 1:75,000, which was published in 1873–89 and supplemented and revised on the eve of the First World War, and the very accurate topographic map on the scale of 1:25,000, which was published in 1867–88, and to some extent served as the source of the former map. Both maps were monochromatic contour maps with hachures. Among other maps published in Austria-Hungary were the general maps of central Europe on the scales of 1:200,000 (1885) and 1:750,000. Both were four-color, hachure maps and covered the western part of Ukraine up to the Kyiv–Odesa line. Kummerer Ritter von Kummersberg’s map of Galicia, on the scale of 1:115,000, was published in 1855–63. In 1868 a statistical map of Galicia and Bukovyna appeared, with a scale of 1:576,000. All these maps were oriented on the Ferro meridian. A hypsometric map of the central Carpathian Mountains on the scale of 1:100,000 was also published under Austria. In 1885 Karl Czoernig published an ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary on the scale of 1:2,500,000. The Polish Academy of Sciences published a geological atlas of Galicia in Cracow in 1898–1906. Hungarian maps of Transcarpathia were published in 1884 on the scale of 1:360,000 and in 1869–81 (1:144,000). In 1919 Zsigmond Bátky and Károly Kogutowicz published an ethnographic map of Hungary on the scale of 1:300,000, which included Transcarpathian Ukraine.

Ukrainian territories were represented on the following German maps: the northwestern territories on a map with a scale of 1:100,000; the western part on a map of central Europe with a scale of 1:300,000; and all Ukraine on a map of Europe with a scale of 1:800,000. The first of these was monochromatic; the last two were colored.

During the First World War the Germans reproduced the Russian maps with scales of 1:84,000 and 1:126,000 and reissued them on the scale of 1:100,000. They also published the first aviation map of Kyiv in 1916, with a scale of 1:26,600.

Thematic cartography, which developed in the second half of the 19th century, extended cartography in many directions. The following important thematic maps dealing with Ukraine were published in the Russian Empire: Vasilii Dokuchaev’s map of soils for European Russia in 6 sheets on the scale of 1:2,500,000 (1900); a map of forests on the scale of 1:1,680,000 (1909); two geologic maps, one in 6 sheets with a scale of 1:2,520,000 (1900 and 1916) and one with a scale of 1:420,000 (1882–94); a military road map in 27 sheets on the scale of 1:1,050,000 (1864–1917); the ethnographic map by Alexander Rittich in 12 sheets on the scale of 1:1,680,000 (1875), which was republished in 1878 in a German edition on the scale of 1:1,370,000 by Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen; and Gornopromyshlennaia karta evropeiskoi Rossii (The Mining Industry Map of European Russia, 1903) on the scale of 1:2,250,000. In 1915 a hypsometric map of the Donets Ridge with a scale of 1:420,000 was published.

The first atlases of Ukrainian territories were the historical Atlas Slobodsko-Ukrainskoi gubernii (Atlas of Slobidska Ukraine gubernia, Kharkiv, 1885), Atlas Poltavskoi gubernii s uezdami (Atlas of Poltava gubernia with Its Counties, Poltava 1895) by Hryhorii Kolominsky, and Opisanie Chernigovskoi gubernii (A Description of Chernihiv gubernia; 2 vols, 37 maps, Chernihiv 1898–9). The first ethnographic map of Ukraine was prepared by Hryhorii Velychko in 1896 on a scale of 1:3,700,000, and the first regional map of Transcarpathia was published by Stepan Tomashivsky in 1910 on the scale of 1:300,000. Józef Buzek published a Polish denominational-linguistic map of Galicia on the scale of 1:432,000 in Lviv in 1909.

The Ukrainian state. During Ukrainian struggle for independence (1917–20), in 1918 the department of cartography of the Chief Geodesic Administration in Kyiv revised the Russian special map in 54 sheets on the scale of 1:420,000 and the map of Kyiv and its suburbs in 6 sheets on the scale of 1:21,000, which showed contours and Ukrainian names of toponyms; it also reprinted a Russian map on the scale of 1:1,050,000 (2nd edn, Vienna 1920) and a map by Pavlo Tutkovsky on the scale of 1:1,680,000. That year Stepan Rudnytsky published the first physical wall map of Ukraine in Ukrainian with a scale of 1:1,000,000.

Between the world wars. During the civil war in Russia, the national revolutions, and the 1920s, the Russians revised the old maps of the Russian Empire. In 1924 work on new maps began. These maps were based on conic projections, referred to Greenwich as the principal meridian, and used metric units. They were prepared with the help of new photographic methods. The fundamental topographic map with a scale of 1:100,000 covered, until 1941, the European part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics up to the Volga River. It represented relief by contour lines, and objects made by humans, such as settlements and roads, were marked in detail. From it were compiled large-scale maps with scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000; and 1:10,000. Maps with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:1,000,000 were used as aviation maps, and the latter was also used for economic and military planning, particularly during the Second World War.

Two hypsometric maps with a scale of 1:1,500,000 were published in the USSR in 1926 and 1929. They also covered the parts of Ukraine under Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. Stepan Rudnytsky published, in 1929, the first large hypsometric map of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on a scale of 1:1,000,000.

In Soviet Ukraine the following thematic maps were published: a soil map on the scale of 1:1,000,000 by Hryhorii Makhiv in 1927; a geological map on the scale of 1:1,000,000 edited by Petro Chyrvynsky in 1940; Elektrifikatsiia Ukraïny (The Electrification of Ukraine, 1920) on the scale of 1:2,100,000; a map of minerals on the scale of 1:1,050,000 in 1922; a map of the regions of sugar-beet cultivation on the scale of 1:1,700,000 in 1936; Yurii Kleopov and Yevhen Lavrenko’s map of vegetation on the scale of 1:1,000,000 in 1938; and detailed maps of the Doneta Basin with scales of 1:200,000 and 1:8,400. At the same time the following atlases were published: Atlas elektryfikatsiï Ukraïny (The Atlas of Ukraine’s Electrification, Kharkiv 1922), Energeticheskii atlas Ukrainy (The Atlas of Ukraine’s Energy Resources, Kharkiv 1921), Statistiko-ekonomicheskii atlas Kryma (The Statistical-Economic Atlas of the Crimea, Simferopol 1922); Klimatychnyi atlas Ukraïny (The Climatic Atlas of Ukraine, Kyiv 1927), and L. Klovany’s Heohrafichnyi atlas Ukraïny (Atlas of Ukraine, Kyiv 1928, 1929).

The Military Geographic Institute in Warsaw prepared maps encompassing Ukrainian territories on scales of 1:25,000; 1:100,000; and 1:300,000, as well as aviation maps on scales of 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000. The eastern Carpathian Mountains were represented on the 1927 map on the scale of 1:200,000.

Volodymyr Kubijovyč and Mykola Kulytsky collaborated in preparing two physical maps of the ethnic territories of Ukraine, which were published in Lviv in 1935 (on the scale of 1:2,500,000) and in 1939 (on the scale of 1:1,500,000) and revised in 1942. An administrative map of Galicia, with a scale of 1:600,000, was published in 1939. Regional maps of the Galician voivodeships (on the scale of 1:500,000) appeared in 1940–3. Kulytsky published a map of the Ukrainian Catholic church in Galicia on the scale of 1:300,000 and a map of Lviv on the scale of 1:30,000 in 1935. The most important contribution to Ukrainian scholarship was Atlas Ukraïny i sumezhnykh kraïv (Atlas of Ukraine and the Neighboring Countries), which was edited by Kubijovyč and published in Ukrainian and English in Lviv in 1937. This was one of the few national atlases at the time. A part of this atlas was translated and published in Berlin under the title Atlas der Ukraine und benachbarten Gebiete (part 1, 1943).

Transcarpathian Ukraine was represented on Czechoslovak maps with scales of 1:25,000, 1:75,000, 1:200,000, and 1:750,000, as well as on the maps of the national atlas of Czechoslovakia. S. Bohač’s ethnographic map of 1937 on the scale of 1:500,000 showed the distribution of Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia. Bukovyna, Bessarabia, and the Maramureş region were depicted on Romanian maps on scales of 1:100,000 (1926–39); 1:200,000, 1:300,000, and 1:500,000.

During the Second World War the Germans revised the Polish maps on scales of 1:100,000 and 1:300,000 and the Russian maps with German nomenclature on scales of 1:100,000, 1:200,000, 1:300,000, 1:500,000, and 1:1,000,000. These maps were often supplemented with aerial data. In Kyiv a German geobotanical map of Ukraine, on the scale of 1:1,000,000, was published in 1942 by Yurii Kleopov and Yevhen Lavrenko. The German Auslandsinstitut in Stuttgart published two valuable ethnographic maps of Caucasia based on the censuses of 1926 and 1939.

After the Second World War (and before 1991). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics published new maps based on aerial photography on scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, 1:300,000, 1:500,000, and 1:1,000,000, according to Krasovsky’s ellipsoidal and the Gauss projection. Gosudarstvennaia karta (The State Map) on the scale of 1:1,000,000, published in 1940–5, served as the basis for other maps of the Soviet Union—geological, soil, and geobotanical. None of these maps are available to the public. The most precise hypsometric maps are those of the Carpathian Mountains and the Donets Basin, both on a scale of 1:600,000. The basic geological map of Ukraine of that time was the map on the scale of 1:200,000. Large parts of Ukraine were covered by the geological map on the scale of 1:50,000. Smaller areas were represented on maps on the scale of 1:25,000. There were even more precise maps of mining areas. Shelf maps on the scales of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 were published. Special maps on the scale of 1:2,000 to 1:10,000 were based on local measurements. Sea maps were prepared with scales of 1:25,000 and 1:75,000 (port maps), 1:100,000 to 1:500,000 (navigational maps), and 1:1,000,000 and over (regional maps). Forest maps were prepared on a scale of 1:300,000. Soil maps had scales of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000, while regional maps had a scale of 1:200,000. Thematic maps (soil, geological, tectonic, climatic, ethnographic, etc) were published with a scale of 1:2,500,000 and 1:1,000,000. The Chief Administration of Geodesy and Cartography published, among others, the following important atlases that pertain to Ukraine: an atlas of railroads (from 1962); an atlas of roads and highways (from 1961); Aleksandr Baranov’s comprehensive atlas of the USSR (1962, 1969, 1982); M. Svinarenko’s hypsometric Atlas SSSR (Atlas of the USSR, 1954–5); Atlas razvitiia khoziaistva i kul'tury SSSR (An Atlas of the Development of the Economy and Culture of the USSR, 1961); Obrazovanie i razvitie SSSR (Formation and Development of the USSR, 1972); the large Klimaticheskii atlas SSSR (Climatic Atlas of the USSR, 2 vols, 1960–2); Atlas sel'skogo khoziaistva (Atlas of Agriculture, 1960); Atlas uglenakopleniia na territorii SSSR (Atlas of Coal Deposits on the Territories of the USSR, 1962). It also published a monumental Atlas mira (World Atlas, 1954, 1967) in Russian and English.

The following maps were published in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic: a map of soils on the scale of 1:750,000 (1972); tectonic maps on the scale of 1:750,000 (1959) and 1:1,000,000 (1962–78); Volodymyr Bondarchuk’s map of the Carpathian Mountains on the scale of 1:1,000,000; a map of the Dnipro-Donets Trough and Greater Kryvyi Rih on the scale of 1:500,000 (1971); a metallogenic map of the Carpathians on the scale of 1:1,000,000 (1973); a map of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield; a hydrogeological map of Ukraine on the scale of 1:1,000,000 (1971); geographical-physical maps with a scale of 1:750,000 (at first geographical survey maps with forests, then only administrative maps); ethnographic maps by Vsevolod Naulko on the scale of 1:1,500,000, based on the censuses of 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989; and a map of the oblasts on the scale of 1:600,000. The following atlases were published in the Ukrainian SSR: Atlas Ukrainskoi SSR i Moldavskoi SSR (Atlas of the Ukrainian SSR and the Moldavian SSR, 1962); Atlas sil's'koho hospodarstva URSR (Atlas of Agriculture in the Ukrainian SSR, 1958); Atlas paleoheohrafichnykh kart URSR (Atlas of Paleogeographic Maps of the Ukrainian SSR, 1960); Atlas Kyïvs'koï oblasti (Atlas of Kyiv oblast, 1962); the economic atlas Nove na karti Ukraïny (The New on Ukraine’s Map, 1961); Agroklimaticheskii atlas Ukrainskoi SSR (Agroclimatic Atlas of the Ukrainian SSR, 1964); three climatic atlases (Leningrad 1964–8); and Sil's'ko-hospodars'kyi atlas zakhidnykh oblastei URSR (Agricultural Atlas of the Western Oblasts of the Ukrainian SSR, 1965). Natsional'nyi atlas Ukraïns'koï RSR (The National Atlas of the Ukrainian SSR) was prepared in three volumes in 1963 but was not published.

Ukrainians abroad have published the most detailed ethnographic map of interwar Galicia, on the scale of 1:250,000, prepared by Volodymyr Kubijovyč (Munich 1953). Kubijovyč and Arkadii Zhukovsky also published a reference map of Ukraine in Ukrainian and English on the scale of 1:2,000,000 in 1978. A physical school map of Ukraine by Roman Drazniowsky and L. Prokop (with a scale of 1:1,000,000) and a historical atlas of Ukraine (1981) edited by Lubomyr Wynar, Ivan Tesla, and Yevhen Tiutko have been published in the United States of America.

In Ukraine there were two central map depositories: the National Library of Ukraine and its branch in Lviv, the Lviv National Scientific Library of Ukraine, and the Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Kyiv, with maps from the 17th century to 1918.

Under Soviet rule Ukrainian geographic nomenclature was determined by the Chief Administration of Geodesy and Cartography and by the government in Moscow, which ignored the traditions of Ukrainian toponymy.

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Hryhorii Kolodii

[This article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 1 (1984).]