KYIVAN CAVE MONASTERY (Kyievo-Pecherska Lavra). An Orthodox monastery in Kyiv. It was founded by Saint Anthony of the Caves in the mid-11th century near the village of Berestove in a cave that the future metropolitan of Kyiv, Ilarion, had excavated and lived in until 1051. The first monks excavated more caves and built a church above them. The monastery's first hegumen was Varlaam (to 1057). He was succeeded by Saint Theodosius of the Caves (ca 1062-74), who introduced the strict Studite rule. The Kyivan princes and boyars generously supported the monastery, donating money, valuables, and land, and building fortifications and churches; some even became monks. Many of the monks were from the educated, upper strata, and the monastery soon became the largest religious and cultural center in Kyivan Rus'. Twenty of its monks became bishops in the 12th and 13th centuries...

KYIVAN CAVE PATERICON (Kyievo-Pechers'kyi pateryk). A collection of tales about the monks of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. There exist two extant redactions: the Tver or Arsenian redaction of 1406, and the Kyiv or Cassianian redaction of 1462. The original version arose after 1215 but not later than 1230 out of the correspondence of two monks of the monastery-monk Simon (by then the bishop of Suzdal and Vladimir) and monk Polikarp, who used the epistolary form as a literary device. The letters contain 20 tales about righteous or sinful monks of the monastery based on oral legends and several written sources, such as the Life of Saint Anthony of the Caves and the Kyivan Cave and Rostov chronicles, which have not survived...

KYIVAN CAVE MONASTERY ICON PAINTING STUDIO (Lavrska ikonopysna maisternia). Main centre of Ukrainian icon painting for many centuries. Its founding at the end of the 11th century was connected with the painting (1083-9) of the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery by Greek masters and the Kyivan artists Master Olimpii and Deacon Hryhorii. The studio developed a distinctive style that is evident in its frescoes, icons, and book illuminations. From the late 16th century, collections of prints by western and local artists and of student drawings were kept for educational purposes. The studio's finest masterpieces of the 18th century are the mural paintings of the Dormition Cathedral (1724-31) and the Trinity Church (1734-44) above the Main Gate of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Many noted icon painters and engravers were trained at the studio...

SAINT ANTHONY OF THE CAVES (Sviatyi Antonii Pecherskyi; secular name: Antyp), b ca 983 in Liubech, Chernihiv region, d 1073 in Kyiv. As a youth he joined the monastery at Mount Athos, where he was tonsured and adopted the religious name Anthony. After many years he returned to Ukraine; reputedly he took up residence in a cave in which Metropolitan Ilarion had lived, near the village of Berestove, on the outskirts of Kyiv. Anthony's deeds and fasting attracted other monks, including Saint Theodosius of the Caves. This monastic community became the nucleus of the Kyivan Cave Monastery, and Anthony emerged as the founder of monasticism in Ukraine...

DORMITION CATHEDRAL OF THE KYIVAN CAVE MONASTERY. The main church of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Built in 1073-8 at the initiative of Saint Theodosius of the Caves during the hegumenship of Stefan of Kyiv and funded by Prince Sviatoslav II Yaroslavych. According to the Kyivan Cave Patericon, Master Olimpii was to have been one of the mosaic masters. At the end of the 11th century many additions to the cathedral were built, including Saint John's Baptistry in the form of a small church on the north side. In the 17th century more cupolas and decorative elements in the Cossack baroque style were added. As the Soviet Army retreated from Kyiv on 16-17 September 1941, mines were placed under the cathedral, and on 3 November it was blown up. The reconstruction of the cathedral began in 1998 and was completed in time for its reconsecration during the Ukrainian Independence Day ceremonies in August 2000...

KOBZARS. Wandering folk bards who performed a large repertoire of epic-historical, religious, and folk songs while playing a kobza or bandura. Kobzars originally composed and performed their own historical songs and dumas in the recitative style and later added songs of various other genres (religious and humorous songs, dance melodies) to their repertoires, which were passed on to their students. Kobzars were held in high esteem by the Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the late 18th century the occupation of kobzar became the almost exclusive province of the blind and crippled, who organized kobzar brotherhoods to protect their corporate interests. In the 19th century, the few hundred remaining kobzars in Poltava, Kharkiv, and Chernihiv gubernias and their artistry aroused the interest of various ethnographers, composers, and painters, including Mykola Lysenko, Oleksander Rusov, and Lesia Ukrainka...

BANDURA. A Ukrainian musical instrument similar in construction and appearance to a lute. The bandura has 32-55 strings: the 8-14 bass strings (bunty) are stretched along the neck, and the 24-43 treble strings (prystrunky) run along the side of the soundboard. Before the 20th century the bandura had various shapes and tunings (basically diatonic), but in recent times it has been standardized. The oldest record of a bandura-like instrument in Ukraine is an 11th-century fresco of court musicians (skomorokhy) in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. This lute-like instrument is probably the ancestor of the bandura and the kobza. The two instruments were related, but distinct. The kobza was smaller in size and had fewer strings, but these were fretted. Around the 16th century prystrunky were added to the bandura, and from that time only one note was obtained from each string...

DUMA. Lyrico-epic works of folk origin about events in the Cossack period of the 16th-17th century. The dumas differ from other lyrico-epic and historical poetry by their form and by the way in which they were performed. They did not have a set strophic structure, but consisted of uneven periods that were governed by the unfolding of the story. Each period constituted a finished, syntactical whole and conveyed a complete thought. The dumas were not sung, but were performed in recitative to the accompaniment of a bandura, kobza, or lira. The chanting had much in common with funeral lamentation. Scholars connect the dumas with the poetic forms that appeared in Ukraine in the 12th century, particularly with the Slovo o polku Ihorevi. One widely accepted theory of the origin of the dumas is that proposed by Pavlo Zhytetsky, according to which they were a unique synthesis of popular and 'bookish-intellectual' creativity...

LIRNYKS. Wandering folk minstrels, often blind, who accompanied themselves on a lira, a folk string instrument introduced in Ukraine from the West in the 15th century. The sound of a lira is produced by cranking a rosined wheel against strings within the instrument. Most frequently, the lira has three strings; the two lower strings are monotonic, and the higher string leads the melody. Lirnyks appeared in Ukraine in the 15th century and had formed a guild by the end of the 17th century. There were special schools for them. Their repertoire consisted mainly of religious songs, although humorous and satirical songs were also popular. Some lirnyks specialized in historical songs and dumas. The lifestyle of lirnyks (as well as kobzars) is described by N. Kononenko in Ukrainian Minstrels: And the Blind Shall Sing (1998)...

VERESAI, OSTAP, b 1803 in Kaliuzhyntsi, Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia, d April 1890 in Sokyryntsi, Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia. Kobza player and singer (tenor). A peasant who became blind in his early youth, he studied from 1818 with S. Koshovy and other kobzars. By the 1860s he was the most renowned performer of Ukrainian epic and historical songs. In 1873 he appeared in recital for the Southwestern Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographic Society and in 1875 concertized in Saint Petersburg. His repertoire included the dumas Kinless Fedir, Three Brothers from Azov, and Oleksii Popovych. Veresai's artistry was studied by ethnographers such as Oleksander Rusov and Pavlo Chubynsky, as well as by Mykola Lysenko, who wrote a monograph on the works in Veresai's repertoire (1873, 1978)...

PARKHOMENKO, TERENTII, b 28 October 1872 in Voloskivtsi, Sosnytsia county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 23 March 1910 in Voloskivtsi. Kobzar. Having lost his sight at 10 he studied the kobza under A. Hoidenko and others and then for five years wandered with Hoidenko through Ukraine. At 30 he began to teach the kobza. Some of his students (Petro Tkachenko-Halashko, Serdiuk-Pereliub, and Avram Hrebin) became noted folk singers. He corresponded with Mykola Lysenko, Opanas Slastion, Oleksander Malynka, Mikhail Speransky, Lesia Ukrainka, Ivan Franko, and Volodymyr Hnatiuk. He gave concerts in Kyiv, Poltava, Nizhyn, Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Uman, Vinnytsia, Yelysavethrad, and Warsaw. His repertoire included dumas, historical songs, psalms, lyrical songs, and satires. Because his songs awakened national consciousness among the peasants, he was harassed by the authorities. He died as a result of a police beating...

OSTRIH ACADEMY. The first rector of the academy was the writer Herasym Smotrytsky. The instructors, many of whom had been invited from Constantinople, included the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk, the Greek Cyril Lucaris, J. Latos (a philosopher from Cracow University), and Yov Boretsky, who later became rector of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and then metropolitan of Kyiv. The curriculum consisted of Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, theology, philosophy, medicine, natural science, and the classical free studies (mathematics, astronomy, grammar, rhetoric, and logic). In addition the academy was renowned for choral singing. The academy was closely affiliated with the Ostrih Press. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, the writer and scholar Meletii Smotrytsky, and several other prominent political and cultural leaders studied at the academy. With the founding of a rival Jesuit college in Ostrih in 1624, the academy went into decline, and by 1636 it had ceased to exist...

OSTROZKY, KOSTIANTYN VASYL, (Polish: Ostrogski, Konstantyn), b 1526 or 1527 in Dubno, Volhynia, d 23 February 1608 in Ostrih, Volhynia. Ukrainian nobleman and political and cultural figure; starosta of Volodymyr-Volynskyi and marshal of Volhynia from 1550, voivode of Kyiv from 1559, and senator from 1569; the most powerful magnate in Volhynia and one of the most influential figures in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was a candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Sigismund II Augustus (the last member of the Jagiellon dynasty) in 1572, and for the Muscovite throne after the death of Tsar Fedor Ivanovich (the last member of the Riurykide dynasty) in 1598. Ostrozky defended Ruthenian (Ukrainian and Belarusian) political rights and was the de facto leader of Ukraine in the negotiations leading up to the 1569 Union of Lublin, during which he demanded that Ruthenia be treated as an equal partner of Poland and Lithuania...

SMOTRYTSKY, HERASYM, b ? in Smotrych (now in Dunaivtsi raion, Khmelnytskyi oblast), d October 1594. Writer and teacher; father of Meletii Smotrytsky. He was secretary at the Kamianets-Podilskyi county office and in 1576 was invited by Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky to Ostrih, where he became one of the leading activist members of the Ostrih intellectual circle. In 1580 Smotrytsky became the first rector of the Ostrih Academy. He was one of the publishers of the Ostrih Bible, to which he wrote the foreword and the verse dedication to Prince Ostrozky. The dedication is one of the earliest examples of Ukrainian versification (nonsyllabic) and is somewhat reminiscent of Ukrainian dumas. Smotrytsky's polemical works against those betraying the Orthodox faith and a satire on the clergy have been lost. Only his book, Kliuch tsarstva nebesnoho (Key to the Heavenly Kingdom, 1587), which is the first printed example of Ukrainian polemical literature, has survived...

OSTRIH PRESS. The second oldest printing press in Ukraine, founded in 1578 by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) with the financial backing of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky at the prince's castle in Ostrih, Volhynia. Its first publications were Azbuka (Alphabet, 1578), a collection of prayers in Greek and Church Slavonic; the second impression of Fedorovych's Bukvar (1578), the first Ukrainian primer; the first Ukrainian edition of the New Testament and an alphabetical index to it (1580); the Ostrih Bible (1581); and the first poetic work printed in Cyrillic, Andrii Rymsha's Khronolohiia (Chronology, 1581). It also printed pro-Orthodox, anti-Uniate polemical literature, including works by Herasym Smotrytsky, V. Surazky, Ostrozky, Khrystofor Filalet, and the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk; a book (1598) containing eight epistles by Meletios Pegas and one by Ivan Vyshensky (his only work published during his lifetime); several liturgical books; and works by Saint Basil the Great and Saint John Chrysostom in Church Slavonic translation...

OSTRIH BIBLE. The first full Church Slavonic edition of the canonical Old and New Testaments and the first three books of the Maccabees, printed in Ostrih in 1580-1 by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) in 1,500-2,000 copies. The preparation of the text and the printing were funded by Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky. With close to 1,400 headpieces, initials, and tailpieces, the 628-folio book is one of the finest examples of printing in late 16th-century Ukraine. The text was based on all the Church Slavonic and Greek sources of the Bible (including the complete 1499 Bible of Archbishop Gennadii of Novgorod the Great) collected by Ostrozky. The Old Testament sources were verified against the Septuagint or translated anew (sometimes incorrectly) by scholars directed by Herasym Smotrytsky at the Ostrih Academy. The Bible includes Ostrozky's and Smotrytsky's prefaces, Smotrytsky's heraldic verses dedicated to Ostrozky, and Fedorovych's postscript. The Bible was reprinted with minor revisions in a unified orthography in Moscow in 1663...

BROTHERHOODS. Fraternities affiliated with individual churches in Ukraine and Belarus that performed a number of religious and secular functions. The origins of brotherhoods can be traced back to the medieval bratchyny, which were organized at churches in the Princely era. Brotherhoods as such appeared in Ukraine in the mid-15th century, with the rise of the burgher class. They began to play a historical role in the second half of the 16th and at the beginning of the 17th century. The brotherhoods endeavored to reform the Orthodox church from within by condemning the corrupt practices of the hierarchy and of individual clergymen. They brought about a revival in the life of the church by promoting cultural and educational activity. They founded brotherhood schools, printing presses, and libraries...

BROTHERHOOD SCHOOLS. Schools founded by religious brotherhoods for the purposes of counteracting the denationalizing influence of Catholic (Jesuit) and Protestant schools and of preserving the Orthodox faith began to appear in the 1580s. The first school was established in 1586 by the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The school served as a model for other brotherhood schools in various towns of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of them in Ukraine and Belarus. In the first half of the 17th century even some villages had brotherhood schools. The most prominent schools were the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School. In 1631, the latter was merged with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School to form the Kyivan Mohyla College, which later became the Kyivan Mohyla Academy...

LVIV DORMITION BROTHERHOOD. An Orthodox religious association founded in the 15th century by Lviv merchants and tradesmen at the Dormition Church in Lviv. It is the oldest and one of the leading Ukrainian brotherhoods, and it served as an example to other brotherhoods. There are historical references to it dating back to 1463. According to its charter, which was confirmed by Patriarch Joachim V of Antioch in 1586 and Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople in 1589, the brotherhood was independent of the local bishops (right of stauropegion) and subject directly to the Patriarch of Constantinople. It had the right to oversee the activities not only of secular members of the church but also of the clergy and even the bishops...

KYIV EPIPHANY BROTHERHOOD. A church brotherhood established ca 1615 at the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood Monastery in the Podil district by wealthy burghers, nobles, clerics, and Cossacks to defend the Orthodox faith from the onslaught of Polish rule and Catholicism. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny gave it a great deal of support and joined it 'with the entire Zaporozhian Host' in 1620. That same year the Orthodox Kyiv metropoly was restored and the brotherhood acquired stauropegion status and the right to establish a 'brotherhood for young men' from the visiting patriarch of Jerusalem, Theophanes III. The Polish king Sigismund III Vasa granted the brotherhood a royal charter in 1629...

LUTSK BROTHERHOOD OF THE ELEVATION OF THE CROSS. A renowned Orthodox brotherhood founded in 1617 in Lutsk by H. Mykulych, the hegumen of the Chernchytsi monastery located near the city. The Lutsk Brotherhood included monks, priests, bishops, nobles, aristocrats, and members of the middle class from Lutsk and Volhynia. It received a charter from the Polish king Sigismund III Vasa in 1619 and was granted the status of stauropegion by the Patriarch of Constantinople in 1623. It ran the Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross School and operated a printing press in the monastery. After Bohdan Khmelnytsky's era the brotherhood entered a period of steady decline...

PRINTING. The earliest books printed in the Ukrainian redaction of Church Slavonic and in the Cyrillic alphabet in general--the Orthodox Octoechos and Horologion--were produced in 1491 by Szwajpolt Fiol, a Franconian expatriate in Cracow. These were followed by liturgical books produced in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state by short-lived presses on Belarusian territory, such as Frantsisk Skoryna's in Vilnius (1525), Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) and Piotr Mstislavets's in Zabludiv (now Zabludow, 1568-70), and Vasyl Tsiapinsky's itinerant press (ca 1565-70). The first printing press on Ukrainian territory was founded by Fedorovych in Lviv (1573-4). Thereafter Lviv remained a major printing center. In Kyiv, printing began with the founding of the Kyivan Cave Monastery Press (1615-1918). In Left-Bank Ukraine the first printing presses were those of Kyrylo Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon in Chernihiv (1646) and Archbishop Lazar Baranovych in Novhorod-Siverskyi (1674-9)...

FEDOROVYCH (FEDOROV), IVAN, b ca 1525, d 16 December 1583 in Lviv. Fedorovych was the founder of book printing and book publishing in Russia and Ukraine. He was deacon of Saint Nicholas Gostunsky Church in Moscow, where, from 1553, he oversaw the construction of a printing house commissioned by Tsar Ivan IV. This technical innovation created competition for the Muscovite scribes, who persecuted Fedorovych and finally caused him to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Settling in Zabludow (Zabludiv) on the Ukrainian-Belarusian border, he changed his surname from Fedorov to Fedorovych. He moved to Lviv in 1572. In 1575 Fedorovych, in the service of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky, was placed in charge of the Derman Monastery; in 1577-9 he established the Ostrih Press, where, in 1581, he published the Ostrih Bible. He returned to Lviv after a quarrel with Prince Ostrozky, but his attempt to reopen his printing shop was unsuccessful. His printery became the property of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood...

OSTRIH PRESS. The second oldest printing press in Ukraine, founded in 1578 by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov) with the financial backing of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky at the prince's castle in Ostrih, Volhynia. Its first publications were Azbuka (Alphabet, 1578), a collection of prayers in Greek and Church Slavonic; the second impression of Fedorovych's Bukvar (1578), the first Ukrainian primer; the first Ukrainian edition of the New Testament and an alphabetical index to it (1580); the Ostrih Bible (1581); and the first poetic work printed in Cyrillic, Andrii Rymsha's Khronolohiia (Chronology, 1581). It also printed pro-Orthodox, anti-Uniate polemical literature, including works by Herasym Smotrytsky, Vasyl Surazky, Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky, Khrystofor Filalet, and the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk. The press functioned, with some interruptions, until 1612; from 1602 to 1605 it operated at the Derman Monastery...

LVIV DORMITION BROTHERHOOD PRESS. A press founded by the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood in 1586. With a printing press and other equipment used by Ivan Fedorovych (Fedorov), it printed liturgical books, primers, poetry, dramas, and theological, educational, and polemical literature. Its oldest extant publications date from 1591: the 1589 charter of Patriarch Jeremiah II granting the brotherhood the right of stauropegion, a booklet of verses in honor of Metropolitan Mykhailo Rahoza, and the grammar Adelphotes. From 1591 to 1722 the press issued 140 books with a total run of some 160,000 copies. They were distributed throughout Polish-ruled Ukraine and Belarus, and even in Wallachia, Moldavia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. They were not, however, permitted to be sold in Russian-ruled Ukraine until 1707. The press played an important role in the intellectual life of Ukraine and the defense of the Orthodox church. In 1788 the Lviv brotherhood and its press were succeeded by the Stauropegion Institute...

KYIVAN CAVE MONASTERY PRESS. The first imprimery in Kyiv and the most important center of printing and engraving in Ukraine in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was founded ca 1606-15 at the Kyivan Cave Monastery by the archimandrite Yelysei Pletenetsky, who purchased the equipment of the former Striatyn Press of Hedeon Balaban in Galicia. Later it was headed by, among others, Zakhariia Kopystensky, Petro Mohyla, Innokentii Gizel (for over 30 years), Varlaam Yasynsky, and Yoasaf Krokovsky. The imprimery issued several hundred titles on various subjects, both original works and translations, in Ukrainian, Church Slavonic, Polish, Russian, Latin, and Greek. Beautifully engraved and ornamented, they were distributed throughout the Slavic countries, as well as Austria, Greece, and Moldavia. In the 16th and 17th centuries the imprimery played an important role in raising the level of education and culture in Ukraine. The tsarist ukase of 1720 limited it to printing only religious works, which it continued to do until 1918...

KYIVAN MOHYLA ACADEMY. Established by Petro Mohyla through the merger of the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School (est 1615-16) with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School (est 1631 by Mohyla), the new school was conceived by its founder as an academy, ie, an institution of higher learning offering philosophy and theology courses and supervising a network of secondary schools. Completing the Orthodox school system, it was to compete on an equal footing with Polish academies run by the Jesuits. Fearing such competition, King Wladyslaw IV Vasa granted the school the status of a mere college or secondary school, and prohibited it from teaching philosophy and theology. It was only in 1694 that the Kyivan Mohyla College (Collegium Kijoviense Mohileanum) was granted the full privileges of an academy, and only in 1701 that it was recognized officially as an academy by Peter I...

MOHYLA, PETRO, b 10 January 1597 in Moldavia, d 11 January 1647 in Kyiv. Ukrainian metropolitan, noble, and cultural figure; son of Simeon, hospodar of Wallachia (1601-2) and Moldavia (1606-7), and the Hungarian princess Margareta. After his father's murder in 1607, Mohyla and his mother sought refuge in Western Ukraine. He was tutored by teachers of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School, and pursued higher education in theology at the Zamostia Academy and in Netherlands and France. After his return to Ukraine he entered the military service and fought as an officer in the Battle of Cecora (1620) and Battle of Khotyn (1621). In 1621-7 he received estates in the Kyiv region and became interested in affairs of the Ukrainian Orthodox church. In September 1627 a dietine in Zhytomyr chose Mohyla to succeed the late Zakhariia Kopystensky as archimandrite of the influential Kyivan Cave Monastery...

PROKOPOVYCH, TEOFAN, b 18 June 1681 in Kyiv, d 19 September 1736 in Saint Petersburg. Orthodox archbishop, writer, scholar, and philosopher. He graduated from the Kyivan Mohyla Academy in 1696 and continued his education in Lithuania, Poland, and at the Saint Athanasius Greek College in Rome. In 1704 he returned to the Mohyla Academy to teach poetics, rhetoric, philosophy, and theology. He also served as prefect from 1708 and rector in 1711-16. He gained prominence as a writer and as a supporter of Hetman Ivan Mazepa. His most famous work, Vladimir, is dedicated to the hetman, whom he depicted as the figure of the Grand Prince of Kyiv. Following Mazepa's unsuccessful revolt against Tsar Peter I in 1709, however, Prokopovych denounced him and expressed his complete allegiance to Peter...

YAVORSKY, STEFAN, b 1658 in Yavoriv, Galicia, d 27 November 1722 in Moscow. Orthodox hierarch, theologian, poet, and philosopher. A graduate of the Kyivan Mohyla College (ca 1684), he completed his education in Polish Jesuit colleges. After returning to Kyiv in 1687, he renounced Catholicism, became an Orthodox monk (1689), and taught rhetoric (1690), philosophy (1691-3), and theology (1693-8) at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. He was hegumen of Saint Nicholas's Monastery in Kyiv from 1697; in 1700 he was appointed metropolitan of Riazan and Murom in Russia, and on 1 December 1701, exarch in Moscow of the Russian Orthodox church, by Emperor Peter I. Yavorsky helped Peter to reform the church and education. Eventually his defense of church autonomy, criticism of Peter, opposition to Teofan Prokopovych, and intolerance of Protestantism cost him the tsar's favor...

SKOVORODA, HRYHORII, b 3 December 1722 in Chornukhy, Lubni regiment, d 9 November 1794 in Pan-Ivanivka, Kharkiv vicegerency. Philosopher and poet. He was educated at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy (1734-53, with two interruptions). He sang in Empress Elizabeth I's court Kapelle in Saint Petersburg (1741-4), served as music director at the Russian imperial mission in Tokai, Hungary (1745-50), and taught poetics at Pereiaslav College (1751). He resumed his studies at the Kyivan academy, but left after completing only two years of the four-year theology course to serve as tutor to V. Tomara (1753-9). He spent the next 10 years in Kharkiv, teaching at Kharkiv College. After his dismissal from the college he spent the rest of his life wandering about eastern Ukraine, particularly Slobidska Ukraine. Material support from friends enabled him to devote himself to reflection and writing...

CHURCH MUSIC. Religious music existed in Ukraine before the official adoption of Christianity, in the form of plainsong or musica practica. With the conversion to Christianity in 988, the Byzantine chant was imported together with Byzantine ritual. The distinguishing feature of Ukrainian church music was its exclusively vocal nature. An original Ukrainian church music first emerged in the 11th century at the Kyivan Cave Monastery, where the so-called Kyivan Cave Monastery chant was evolved. From the mid-16th to the end of the 17th century a contrapuntal or polyphonic singing (vocal music with simultaneous but melodically independent parts or voices) was developed in Ukraine. Polyphonic music was cultivated primarily by church brotherhood choirs. The choral concerto in one movement, composed for non-liturgical texts, became a very popular form. The composers of polyphonic music were, among others, Mykola Dyletsky and Andrii Rachynsky. Several outstanding Ukrainian composers of liturgical music, including Maksym Berezovsky, Artem Vedel, and Dmytro Bortniansky, emerged during the latter half of the 18th century...

DYLETSKY, MYKOLA, b 1650? in Kyiv, d 1723? Music theoretician, composer, pedagogue. Dyletsky studied in Vilnius (1675) and worked for some time in Smolensk (1677), Kyiv, Moscow (1679), Saint Petersburg, Lviv, and Cracow. He was a master of polyphonic choral music. Among his works are compositions for four voices and eight voices, liturgical music, various motets, and canons. His most important theoretical work was Hramatyka muzykal'na (Musical Grammar), a textbook of polyphonic singing, which explains the fundamental theory of music, some principles of counterpoint, and the general rules of composition; it is illustrated by selections from the works of Dyletsky himself, M. Zamarevych, Ziuzka (probable pseudonym of either Lavrentii Zyzanii or Stepan Zyzanii), I. Koliada, M. Mylchevsky, Ye. Zakonnyk, and others. His theoretical views are augmented by comments on esthetics and on the educational value of music. The original text of the work, written in Vilnius in 1675, is not extant, but it exists in several variants and new redactions: 20 manuscript transcriptions are known...

BEREZOVSKY, MAKSYM, b 27 October 1745 in Hlukhiv, d 2 April 1777 in Saint Petersburg. A prominent composer, one of the creators of the Ukrainian choral style in sacred music. Berezovsky studied at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy and sang in the court choir in Saint Petersburg. From 1759 to 1760 he performed as soloist with the Italian opera company in Oranienbaum near Saint Petersburg. From 1765 to 1774 he studied in Bologna, Italy, under Giovanni Battista Martini, and in 1771 gained the title of maestro di musica and became a member of the Bologna Philharmonic Academy. In 1775 he returned to Saint Petersburg, where, as a result of court intrigues and difficult circumstances, he committed suicide. Berezovsky was the first representative of the early Classicist style in Ukrainian music. He was the composer of the opera Demofonte, a sonata for violin and harpsichord, and of a series of sacred works (including 12 concertos), of which only a few have been preserved. The recent discovery of his unknown Symphony No. 11 indicates that a considerable number of his other instrumental compositions must have been lost...

BORTNIANSKY, DMYTRO, b 1751 in Hlukhiv, d 10 October 1825 in Saint Petersburg. A prominent composer and conductor. After studying in the Hlukhiv Singing School, Bortniansky became a member of the court choir in Saint Petersburg in 1758. From 1769 to 1779 he studied in Italy, where he composed several operas to Italian librettos. Bortniansky also wrote liturgical works to Latin and German texts. On his return to Saint Petersburg he became a court composer, teacher, and conductor. During this period he composed his three French operas in 1786 and 1787. At the same time Bortniansky wrote a number of instrumental works (piano sonatas and a piano quintet with harp). In 1790 he wrote his Concerto-Symphony which for a long time (until the discovery of an earlier symphony by Maksym Berezovsky) was considered to be the first symphonic work composed in the Russian Empire. In 1796 he became the director of the court choir, which was composed mostly of Ukrainians and which he raised to a new level of excellence. During this period Bortniansky composed over 100 choral religious works...

VEDEL, ARTEM, b 13 April 1767 in Kyiv, d 26 July 1808 in Kyiv. Composer, conductor, singer (tenor), violinist, and teacher. Educated at the Kyivan Mohyla Academy, Vedel worked briefly as a choirmaster in Moscow. In 1792 he returned to Kyiv to conduct a military choir. The period 1792-7 saw the height of his musical creativity and he composed most of his choral concertos and other works at that time. In 1797 Tsar Paul I prohibited the performances in churches of choral concertos or any other forms except for liturgical music. This prohibition proved particularly harmful to musical culture in Ukraine where choral concertos were particularly popular. Left without work, Vedel briefly joined the Kyivan Cave Monastery. He was banished to a mental asylum in 1799 after church authorities attributed to him some irreverent marginal notes scribbled in a religious book. The incarceration ended Vedel's creative work and led to his premature death. The publication and performance of his works were banned for over one hundred years after his death. Oleksander Koshyts was one of the first choirmasters to include Vedel's works in his choir's repertoire...

MARKEVYCH, MYKOLA, b 7 February 1804 in Dunaiets, Chernihiv gubernia, d 21 June 1860 in Turivka, Poltava gubernia. Historian, ethnographer, poet, musician, and composer. He studied in Saint Petersburg at the boarding school of the Pedagogical Institute (1817-20) and later studied piano and composition in Moscow. Markevych was close to the literary circles of the Decembrist movement. From 1830 he lived on his estate in Turivka and collected materials on the history of Ukraine and Ukrainian folklore and folk songs. The then unpublished Istoriia Rusov had a significant impact on Markevych's major work, the five-volume Istoriia Malorossii (History of Little Russia), published in Moscow in 1842-3. In his monograph Markevych approached the history of Ukraine as an independent, uninterrupted process from earliest times to the late 18th century. Markevych's history greatly influenced 19th-century Ukrainian historiography and his Romantic contemporaries, particularly his friend Taras Shevchenko...

MAKSYMOVYCH, MYKHAILO, b 15 September 1804 at the Tymkivshchyna estate, Poltava gubernia, d 22 November 1873 at the Mykhailova Hora estate, Poltava gubernia. Historian, philologist, ethnographer, botanist, and poet. In 1832 he concluded his studies at Moscow University, and remained at the university for further academic work. In 1834 he was appointed professor of Russian folk literature at Kyiv University, and that year he became the university's first rector, a post he held until 1835. Maksymovych's learning was of encyclopedic dimensions and covered an unusually wide range, from botany to history. As a historian, Maksymovych adhered to the then-popular ideas of Romanticism and identification with the peasant ethnos. He defended the theory of the organic link between the Princely era of Kyivan Rus' and Cossack era in Ukrainian history, to which he devoted much research and many articles, critical notes on sources, and other writings. His research was very significant for the development of Ukrainian historiography...

KOSTOMAROV, MYKOLA, b 16 May 1817 in Yurasivka, Voronezh region, d 19 April 1885 in Saint Petersburg. Historian, publicist, and writer. He graduated from Kharkiv University in 1837. In 1846 he was appointed assistant professor at Kyiv University. That year, along with Vasyl Bilozersky, Panteleimon Kulish, Mykola Hulak, Taras Shevchenko, and others, he formed the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. In 1847 he was arrested along with all the other members of the society and sentenced to one year's imprisonment, followed by exile. Kostomarov wrote a number of fundamental works on the history of Ukraine in the 16th-18th centuries. He was the founder of the populist trend in Ukrainian historiography. In his historicophilosophical studies as well as in his historical monographs, Kostomarov argued for the national distinctiveness of the Ukrainian people and the uniqueness of their historial development, which, unlike for the Poles and Russians, was manifested in the Ukrainian freedom-loving, democratic, and individualistic spirit...

KULISH, PANTELEIMON, b 8 August 1819 in Voronizh, Chernihiv gubernia, d 14 February 1897 in Motronivka, Chernihiv gubernia. In 1843-5 Kulish taught in Kyiv and studied Ukrainian history and ethnography. There he befriended Taras Shevchenko, Mykola Kostomarov, and Vasyl Bilozersky; their circle later became the nucleus of the secret Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. In 1847 he was arrested by the tsarist police for belonging to the Brotherhood, imprisoned and then exiled. Because his main offence had been writing a 'Tale of the Ukrainian People,' Kulish was forbidden to write. In 1856 he established a Ukrainian printing press in Saint Petersburg and issued two splendid volumes of Zapiski o Iuzhnoi Rusi (Notes on Southern Rus'), a rich collection of Ukrainian folklore, ethnography, and literature in which he introduced a new orthography. Much of his time he devoted to the study of Ukrainian history, particularly of the Cossack period. His earlier romantic view of the Cossacks gave way to a new and very critical appraisal of them...

LAZAREVSKY, OLEKSANDER, b 20 June 1834 in Hyrivka, Chernihiv gubernia, d 13 April 1902 in Pidlypne, Chernihiv gubernia. Historian. He graduated in 1858 from Saint Petersburg University. In the mid-1860s he researched the socioeconomic and cultural history of Left-Bank Ukraine during the 17th and 18th centuries. He wrote a fundamental study of the peasantry and articles about the Cossack starshyna and nobility. He made an outstanding contribution to the history of colonization, administration, and land tenure in Opisanie Staroi Malorossii (A Description of Old Little Russia, 3 vols). Lazarevsky's approach to history was based on his populist ideas. He emphasized the exploitation of peasants by the Cossack starshyna and regarded the Hetman state and its leading figures with disapproval. But he treated fairly those Ukrainian nobles who made a contribution to Ukrainian culture. He paid little attention to the disastrous influence of Russian policy in Ukraine, but Ukrainian historians noted the one-sidedness without denying his enormous contribution...

ANTONOVYCH, VOLODYMYR, b 18 January 1834 in Makhnivka, Kyiv gubernia, d 21 March 1908 in Kyiv. Historian, archeographer, archeologist, professor of history at Kyiv University from 1878, editor in chief of the publications of the Kyiv Archeographic Commission, patron and head (from 1881) of the Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler in Kyiv, and head of the Hromada of Kyiv. Antonovych was a major representative of the populist school in Ukrainian historiography. He founded the so-called Kyivan school of historians, which consisted of his students at Kyiv University (among them Mykhailo Hrushevsky), who later laid the foundations of modern Ukrainian historiography. In his writings Antonovych avoided synthetic theories and concentrated on documentary research. Only in his more popular lectures did Antonovych give a general survey of Ukrainian history from the origin of the Cossacks. For almost half a century Antonovych played a leading role in Ukrainian civic and political life. He wrote over 300 scholarly studies...

HROMADAS. Clandestine societies of Ukrainian intelligentsia that in the second half of the 19th century were the principal agents for the growth of Ukrainian national consciousness within the Russian Empire. The first hromada, established in Saint Petersburg, was already active by the fall of 1858. It consisted of some former members of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, including Mykola Kostomarov, Panteleimon Kulish, and Taras Shevchenko. With financial support from the landowners Vasyl Tarnovsky and Hryhorii Galagan, works of Ukrainian writers began to be published and the journal Osnova appeared. Another hromada outside Ukraine sprang up at the University of Moscow in 1858-9. In Ukraine the most important hromada, the Hromada of Kyiv, was organized in 1859 by students who were active in the Sunday-school movement. In Kharkiv a student circle that collected ethnographic material formed around Oleksander Potebnia at the end of the 1850s, but the first hromada arose probably in 1861-2...

HROMADA OF KYIV. The most active and enduring hromada in Russian-ruled Ukraine. It was not only the chief cultural, and to some extent political, society of Ukrainian intelligentsia in Kyiv but also, through its contacts with similar societies in other cities, the most important catalyst of the Ukrainian national revival of the second half of the 19th century. Founded in 1859 mostly by students who felt morally obligated to improve the condition of the people through education, the hromada initially focused on teaching at Sunday schools. In the early 1860s a khlopoman group lead by Volodymyr Antonovych joined the hromada. In 1862, at the height of its activity, the hromada's membership reached 200, and included representatives from various social strata and from different nationalities--Jews and Poles as well as Ukrainians. Under the close surveillance of the authorities, the hromada reduced its activities and limited itself to cultural, apolitical goals, devoting much attention to publishing a journal, Kievskaia starina, devoted to Ukrainian studies...

KHLOPOMAN. Adherent of a populist movement of Ukrainian students and intelligentsia in Right-Bank Ukraine in the 1850s-1860s. The derogatory Polish term 'chlopoman,' meaning lover of the peasantry, was adopted eventually by those who propagated the notion of 'love for the simple Ukrainian people.' The movement, which was greatly influenced by French socialists (P-J. Proudhon, L-A. Blanqui) and democratic populism, originated among students of Kyiv University who belonged to the Polonized nobility. Recognizing the duty to serve 'the people among whom one lives,' they turned away from Polish student organizations and established a Ukrainian society. The khlopoman movement also had an impact on young people in Left-Bank Ukraine, particularly in Kharkiv, Poltava, Chernihiv, and Odesa. The movement's founders included Volodymyr Antonovych, Tadei Rylsky, Borys Poznansky, Pavlo Zhytetsky, and Pavlo Chubynsky...

ANTONOVYCH, VOLODYMYR, b 18 January 1834 in Makhnivka, Kyiv gubernia, d 21 March 1908 in Kyiv. Historian, archeographer, archeologist, professor of history at Kyiv University from 1878, editor in chief of the publications of the Kyiv Archeographic Commission, patron and head (from 1881) of the Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler in Kyiv. As a member of the Khlopoman movement, Antonovych published a reply to the Polish journalist Z. Fisz (pseud T. Padalica), entitled 'Moia ispoved' (My Confession), in Osnova (Saint Petersburg), 1 (1862), in which he defended the ideology of the 'peasant lovers.' He was head of the Old Hromada of Kyiv. Through his initiative the Poles and Ukrainians in the Galician Diet reached an agreement in 1890. He played an important role in Mykhailo Hrushevsky's move to Lviv and the city's emergence as an important center of Ukrainian learning and publishing. For almost half a century Antonovych played a leading role in Ukrainian civic and political life...

KIEVSKAIA STARINA. A learned monthly for Ukrainian studies printed in Russian and published in Kyiv from 1882 to 1906. In 1907 it was renamed Ukraina and appeared in Ukrainian. The journal was founded by Teofan Lebedyntsev, Volodymyr Antonovych, Oleksander Lazarevsky, and Pavlo Zhytetsky, and was financed mostly by Vasyl Symyrenko. It was the unofficial organ of the Hromada of Kyiv, which in 1893 became its real owner. For over 25 years Kievskaia starina was the only printed medium of Ukrainian scholarship in Russian-ruled Ukraine. It published a wealth of research and documentary materials in history, archeology, ethnography, philology, and bibliography. In 1890 it began to publish belles-lettres, which from 1897 appeared in Ukrainian. The leading Ukrainian scientific minds and cultural figures of the time were grouped around the journal, forming something like a learned society. At the turn of the century Kievskia starina became a sort of encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies...

DRAHOMANOV, MYKHAILO, b 6 September 1841 in Hadiach, Poltava gubernia, d 20 July 1895 in Sofia, Bulgaria. Scholar, civic leader, publicist, political thinker. Born into a gentry family of Cossack origin, Drahomanov studied at Kyiv University, where in 1864 he became privat docent, and in 1873, docent, lecturing on ancient history. While pursuing an academic career, Drahomanov rose to a position of leadership in the Ukrainian secret society the Hromada of Kyiv. During his trips abroad Drahomanov established contacts with Galician Ukrainians; under his influence the Russophile Academic Circle in Lviv adopted a Ukrainian democratic platform in 1875-6. Drahomanov became an early victim of anti-Ukrainian repressive measures by the Russian government and was dismissed in 1875 from the Kyiv University. Entrusted by the Hromada with the mission to become its spokesman in Western Europe, he settled in Geneva in 1876. Aided by Antin Liakhotsky (Kuzma), he published the journal Hromada (Geneva) (5 vols, 1878-82), the first modern Ukrainian political journal. With Serhii Podolynsky and Mykhailo Pavlyk, who for some time joined him in Switzerland, Drahomanov formed the Geneva Circle, an embryo of Ukrainian socialism...

SOCIALISM. A political movement calling for collective ownership of the means of production or an egalitarian distribution of wealth. Socialist ideas first appeared in Ukrainian territory in the 1830s and 1840s, but they were limited to the most radical factions of the Polish conspiratorial movement; a Ukrainian socialist movement as such did not emerge until the 1870s. The most influential Ukrainian socialist thinker was Mykhailo Drahomanov, who adapted Western European socialist theories to the particular situation of the Ukrainian nation; his peasant-oriented, decentralist brand of socialism eventually came to be known as radicalism. Other Ukrainian socialist theorists of the 1870s were Drahomanov's close associates Mykola Ziber, an interpreter and proponent of Marxism, and Serhii Podolynsky, who was influenced by Drahomanov's radicalism, Marxism, and Russian populism. Under the influence of Drahomanov, Ziber, and Podolynsky and also under the influence of Polish socialists Ukrainian university students in Vienna and Lviv were converted to socialism, including Ivan Franko, Mykhailo Pavlyk, and Ostap Terletsky. The first Ukrainian political party was a socialist party, the Ukrainian Radical party (est 1890 in Lviv)...

RADICALISM. In its most general sense radicalism is the striving for fundamental change. Usually the term has a narrower meaning in politics. In the context of Ukrainian history radicalism refers to a brand of agrarian socialism that emerged in Galicia in the late 19th century and survived there until the Second World War. The ideological inspiration for radicalism came from the political thinker Mykhailo Drahomanov and was embodied in the Ukrainian Radical party (est 1890) in Galicia. Before the party was founded, 'radicals' generally had referred to themselves as 'socialists' or 'progressives.' However, the party leadership, particularly Mykhailo Pavlyk and Ivan Franko, wanted to distinguish their party, its program, and its name from those of the social democrats. They argued that Marxism was suitable for Western European socialists, whose countries had an industrial proletariat. The Ukrainians, however, were a predominantly peasant people, and Drahomanov's political theories suited them much more than Karl Marx's. Radicalism was pre-eminently a Galician phenomenon, but it had resonances elsewhere in Ukraine...

PODOLYNSKY, SERHII, b 31 July 1850 in Yaroslavka, Zvenyhorod county, Kyiv gubernia, d 12 July 1891 in Kyiv. Socialist theoretician and activist, and physician. Podolynsky studied science and medicine in Kyiv, Paris, Zurich, and Breslau (now Wroclaw). He worked as a physician in Ukraine in the mid-1870s, but in 1878 he settled in Montpellier, France, where he continued to practice medicine and also lectured at the famous Montpellier medical school. In the early 1870s he became involved with the Hromada of Kyiv, particularly with its most radical members, the socialist Mykhailo Drahomanov and Mykola Ziber. To the end of his active life Podolynsky combined a revolutionary socialist perspective with devotion to the Ukrainian nation. Podolynsky co-operated closely with Mykhailo Drahomanov and his journal Hromada (Geneva), of which he formally became coeditor in 1881. He was also involved in the international socialist movement, contributed to German-, Italian-, and especially French-language socialist journals. He made an important contribution to theory in his article 'Socialism, or Human Labor and the Unity of Physical Forces,' which was published in several versions and four languages in 1880-3...

FRANKO, IVAN, b 27 August 1856 in Nahuievychi (today Ivan Franko), Drohobych county, Galicia, d 28 May 1916 in Lviv. Writer, scholar, political and civic leader, publicist; like Taras Shevchenko, one of Ukraine's greatest creative geniuses. His first literary works were published in the students' magazine Druh, whose editorial board he joined in 1875. Franko's political and publishing activities and his correspondence with Mykhailo Drahomanov attracted the attention of the police, and in 1877 he was arrested along with Mykhailo Pavlyk, Ostap Terletsky, and others for spreading socialist propaganda. In 1878 he founded with Pavlyk, the magazine Hromads'kyi druh, which was confiscated by the authorities but resumed publication under the names Dzvin and Molot. Franko first became politically active in a circle of Russophile secondary school students. Soon after he left it and joined the populist camp. As a student he was a fervent advocate of socialism and studied Marx and Engels, but later he attacked it vehemently. In general, Franko evolved in his thinking from a proponent of radicalism to a progressive national democrat...

PAVLYK, MYKHAILO, b 17 September 1853 in Monastyrske (now part of Kosiv), Kolomyia circle, Galicia, d 26 January 1915 in Lviv. Galician socialist figure and publicist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1900. He and Ivan Franko became close friends as students at Lviv University. Both of them contributed to the Academic Circle's organ, Druh (1874-7), and both became Ukrainophile socialists under the influence of Mykhailo Drahomanov's letters to Druh and the Polish-language newspaper Praca. Through his writings Pavlyk remained the principal Galician propagator of Drahomanov's ideas, which brought about his persecution (he was tried in court nearly 30 times), imprisonment (in 1877, 1878, 1882, 1885-6, and 1889), and ostracism. With Franko he edited (1878) the socialist journal Hromads'kyi druh and miscellanies Dzvin and Molot, all of which outraged the conservative Galician public and were confiscated by the police. In 1879 he avoided a six-month prison term, which he received for writing 'Rebenshchukova Tetiana,' by fleeing to Geneva, where he worked with Drahomanov and Serhii Podolynsky on the journal Hromada. In 1882 he returned to Lviv and served his sentence...

BROTHERHOOD OF TARAS. Secret organization of young nationally conscious Ukrainians established in 1891 (according to some, in 1892) when a group of students and civic leaders from Kharkiv and Kyiv visited the grave of Taras Shevchenko near Kaniv. Among the brotherhood's founders were V. Borovyk, Borys Hrinchenko, Ivan Lypa, and Mykola Mikhnovsky. Kharkiv was the brotherhood's center of activity until its members were arrested in the summer of 1893. Then Kyiv became the center, with chapters in Odesa, Poltava, Lubny, and Pryluky. The brotherhood included such people as Valeriian Borzhkovsky, Musii Kononenko, Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, Volodymyr Samiilenko, Oleksander Cherniakhivsky, Volodymyr Shemet, Yevhen Tymchenko, and Viktor Andriievsky. The society's ideological principles, formulated by Lypa, were propagated by P. Vartovy (Hrinchenko) in Lysty z Ukrainy Naddniprians'koï (Letters from Dnieper Ukraine), by Kotsiubynsky in the fable 'Kho,' and by Samiilenko in satires on the Little Russian mentality and Ukrainophilism...

LYPA, IVAN, b 24 February 1865 in Kerch, Tavriia gubernia, d 13 November 1923 in Vynnyky, Lviv county, Galicia. Civic and political figure, writer, and physician. As a student at Kharkiv University he helped found the Brotherhood of Taras, formulated its ideological principles (published anonymously as 'Profession de foi' in the journal Pravda), and was imprisoned for over a year for his activity in it. After completing his studies at Kazan University he practiced medicine in the Kherson region, Poltava, and then Odesa, where he published the Ukrainian paper Narodnyi stiah and founded several Ukrainian organizations. During the Ukrainian struggle for independence he was elected Ukrainian commissioner of Odesa and sat on the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Independentists. Under the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic he served as minister of religious affairs. After emigrating to Poland in 1921, he chaired the Council of the Republic and became minister of health in the Government-in-exile of the Ukrainian National Republic...

MIKHNOVSKY, MYKOLA, b 1873 in Turivka, Pryluky county, Poltava gubernia, d 3 March 1924 in Kyiv. Political and community activist, publicist and lawyer, and ideologue of Ukrainian nationalism. He studied law at Kyiv University and during his student years was one of the initiators (1891) of the Brotherhood of Taras. His speech at the Taras Shevchenko anniversary celebrations in Poltava and Kharkiv in 1900, printed in Lviv as Samostiina Ukraina (Independent Ukraine), became the program of the Revolutionary Ukrainian party in its early period. When most of RUP's membership abandoned an independentist platform, he left it to assist in organizing the Ukrainian People's party (founded in 1902) and wrote the 'Ten Commandments' and the 'Program' to underscore its commitment to full Ukrainian statehood. During the Ukrainian struggle for independence Mikhnovsky was in Kyiv propagating the idea of Ukrainian independence and the formation of a national army. In 1924 incessant persecution by the Soviet authorities led him to suicide...

HRINCHENKO, BORYS, b 9 December 1863 at Vilkhovyi Yar khutir in Kharkiv county, d 6 May 1910 in Ospedaletti, Italy. Prominent public figure, educator, writer, folklorist, and linguist. For 10 years he taught in elementary schools in Kharkiv and Katerynoslav gubernias. He made an effort to teach children their native language and wrote some of the first Ukrainian-language school textbooks. He was one of the founders of the Brotherhood of Taras in 1891. In 1894, he organized there the largest publishing house in Russian-ruled Ukraine, which published 50 popular-educational books despite severe censorship. In 1902 he moved to Kyiv, where the Hromada of Kyiv entrusted him with the task of compiling a dictionary of the Ukrainian language, which he fulfiled by editing 68,000-word, four-volume dictionary in 1907-9. He founded and was first president of the Kyiv Prosvita society. In 1904 he was a cofounder of both the Ukrainian Radical party (Kyiv) and the Ukrainian Democratic party, which merged in 1905 to form the Ukrainian Democratic Radical party...

GENERAL UKRAINIAN NON-PARTY DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZATION. A clandestine cultural organization founded in Kyiv in the fall of 1897 on the initiative of Oleksander Konysky and Volodymyr Antonovych. Many of its first members also belonged to a hromada or the Brotherhood of Taras. With about 150 members in 1901, it was enlarged and reorganized into an association of 3-10-member autonomous groups that held periodic congresses every three years to elect the executive. Most of its energy was devoted to publishing: it maintained the Vik publishing house and the Kyivskaia Starina bookstore. It also encouraged the student, zemstvo, and co-operative movement, helped persecuted Ukrainian activists, and agitated for the use of the Ukrainian language in the schools. In 1904 the organization adopted a full political program and changed its name to the Ukrainian Democratic party, demanding national autonomy for Ukrainians and other nationalities within a federated Russia and radical economic and social reforms...

REVOLUTIONARY UKRAINIAN PARTY (RUP). The first mass Ukrainian revolutionary party in Russian-ruled Ukraine, established on 11 February 1900. The first RUP members were nationally conscious students at various schools in Ukraine and elsewhere in the Russian Empire. Initially RUP based its politics on a speech 'Samostiina Ukraina' delivered in 1900 by a sympathizer, Mykola Mikhnovsky, who called for 'a single, unitary, indivisible, free, independent Ukraine from the Carpathians to the Caucasus.' In 1903 RUP repudiated the radical nationalism of 'Samostiina Ukraina' and adopted the principles, goals, and tactics of international social democracy. For practical reasons the call for an independent Ukraine was replaced by one for Ukraine's full national-territorial autonomy within a federated, democratic Russia. In 1904, RUP shifted its focus away from the peasantry to the ethnic Ukrainian urban proletariat, adopted organizational principles of 'democratic centralism' and expanded its influence to Right-Bank Ukraine and Southern Ukraine and the Kuban...

KROPYVNYTSKY, MARKO, b 22 May 1840 in Bezhbairaky, Yelysavethrad county, Kherson gubernia, d 21 April 1910 en route from Mykolaiv to Kharkiv, buried in Kharkiv. Renowned actor, stage director, playwright, and composer; a founder and director of the first professional Ukrainian theater in Russian-ruled Ukraine. Working as a petty official of the county court or the municipal government in Bobrynets and Yelysavethrad, for ten years he was active as an actor and play director in amateur theater groups with Ivan Tobilevych (Ivan Karpenko-Kary). In 1871 he moved to Odesa and joined the professional theater of Russian popular drama, where he played mostly the roles of Ukrainian characters. In 1882 Kropyvnytsky organized his own touring theater troupe in Yelysavethrad. As the first Ukrainian professional troupe, it marks the beginning of a new period in the history of the Ukrainian theater. Drawing on the talent of such actors as Mariia Zankovetska and Mykola Sadovsky, the troupe toured Ukraine and some Russian cities with a populist-realist repertoire, and was acclaimed highly by both Ukrainian and Russian critics...

KARPENKO-KARY, IVAN (pen name of Ivan Tobilevych), b 29 September 1845 in Arsenivka, Bobrynets county, Kherson gubernia, d 15 September 1907 in Berlin. Famous Ukrainian actor and playwright; the brother of the theater figures Panas Saksahansky, Mykola Sadovsky, and Mariia Sadovska-Barilotti. In 1863 he met Marko Kropyvnytsky and with him became involved in producing amateur theater in Yelysavethrad. In 1884 he was exiled to Novocherkassk for his involvement with Ukrainian revolutionaries; returning to Ukraine in 1886, he lived under police surveillance until 1889. From 1887 until his illness in 1904 he lived on his farmstead, wrote, and worked as a stage actor and director, mostly in the traveling troupe of his brother Panas Saksahansky. He was acclaimed for his principal dramatic and comic roles in many Ukrainian plays, some of them his own. Karpenko-Kary was renowned as a playwright. Altogether he wrote 18 frequently produced plays: satiric comedies, eg Martyn Borulia (1886), dramas, eg. Naimychka (The Servant Girl, 1885), and historical ethnographic plays, eg. Sava Chalyi (1899)...

SADOVSKY, MYKOLA (real surname: Tobilevych), b 13 December 1856 in Kamiano-Kostuvate, Yelysavethrad county, Kherson gubernia, d 7 February 1933 in Kyiv. Theater director, actor, and singer; brother of Ivan Karpenko-Kary, Mariia Sadovska-Barilotti, and Panas Saksahansky. In 1881 he began his theatrical career in Hryhorii Ashkarenko's, Marko Kropyvnytsky's, and Mykhailo Starytsky's troupes. From 1888 he led his own troupe, which in 1898 joined Saksahansky's Troupe. Sadovsky was the artistic director of the Ukrainska Besida Theater (1905-6) and then organized the first resident Ukrainian theater in Kyiv, which was active until 1919. Acclaimed by Mykhailo Starytsky as the most talented of the Tobilevych family, Sadovsky was an actor of the realistic-psychological school, whose best roles were profound interpretations of the heroes in historical and social dramas, such as Starytsky's Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi, Ivan Karpenko-Kary's Sava Chalyi, and Liudmyla Starytska-Cherniakhivska's Het'man Doroshenko. He was also a key force behind the flowering of Ukrainian operatic theater...

SAKSAHANSKY, PANAS (pseud of Panas Tobilevych), b 15 May 1859 in Kamiano-Kostuvate, Yelysavethrad county, Kherson gubernia, d 17 September 1940 in Kyiv. Theater director and actor; brother of Mykola Sadovsky, Ivan Karpenko-Kary, and Mariia Sadovska-Barilotti. After completing his education in Yelysavethrad (1880) he worked in Mykhailo Starytsky's (from 1883), Marko Kropyvnytsky's (1885), and Sadovsky's (1888) troupes; led his own Saksahansky's Troupe (1890-1909); worked in Trokhym Kolesnychenko's troupe (1910-15) and in the Society of Ukrainian Actors (1915-16); directed the People's Theater (1918-22); worked in the Zankovetska Theater (intermittently in 1922-6); and, from 1927, led a touring troupe with Sadovsky. Saksahansky was an actor of the realistic-psychological school, gifted in gesture and mimicry, whose most famous roles were in satirical comedies, such as Ivan Kotliarevsky's Natalka from Poltava. In Ukrainian translation he staged Schiller's Die Rauber, Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta, and Shakespeare's Othello. He is the author of two plays and two books of memoirs...

ZANKOVETSKA, MARIIA (nee Adasovska), b 4 August 1854 in Zanky now in Nizhyn raion, Chernihiv oblast, d 4 October 1934 in Kyiv. Actress, singer, and theater activist. Zankovetska was educated in a Chernihiv private school and at the Helsinki Conservatory. She debuted in 1882 in Ivan Kotliarevsky's Natalka from Poltava as a member of Marko Kropyvnytsky's troupe, which production heralded the rebirth of Ukrainian professional theater, heavily repressed since the Ems Ukase of 1876. Zankovetska performed as leading actress in the troupes of Kropyvnytsky, Mykhailo Starytsky, and Mykola Sadovsky, in Saksahansky's Troupe, in Onysym Suslov's troupe, in the Society of Ukrainian Actors, and in the State People's Theater. She appeared at the All-Russian Congress of Stage Workers in 1897, where she demanded the termination of censorship in Ukrainian theater. Zankovetska's stage career spanned over 30 dramatic-heroic roles from the populist-ethnographical repertoire, which she played with innate subtlety and intelligence. Her best performances were opposite Mykola Sadovsky, and her talent was praised by Konstantin Stanislavsky...

LYSENKO, MYKOLA, b 22 March 1842 in Hrynky, Kremenchuk county, Poltava gubernia, d 6 November 1912 in Kyiv. Composer, ethnomusicologist, conductor, pianist, teacher, and community figure. Lysenko acquired the rudiments of piano playing from his mother and gained a strong appreciation of Ukrainian music and Cossack lore from his grandparents. From 1860 he studied at Kharkiv University and Kyiv University, graduating in 1865 with a degree in natural sciences. His stay in Kyiv, his activities in the Hromada of Kyiv, and his close relationships with his cousin Mykhailo Starytsky, and with Volodymyr Antonovych, Tadei Rylsky, and others led Lysenko to make a strong personal commitment to the study and development of Ukrainian music. He worked for two years as an arbitrator in Tarashcha county, then furthered his music studies in Leipzig (1867-9). After returning to Kyiv in 1869 to work as a music teacher and conductor, he moved to Saint Petersburg (1874-6) to study orchestration under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov; then he returned to Kyiv, where he gave music lessons for many years before opening the Lysenko Music and Drama School in 1904...

LYSENKO MUSIC AND DRAMA SCHOOL. A school established in Kyiv 1904 by Mykola Lysenko to foster the development of Ukrainian music. Lysenko financed the project with funds originally gathered by his supporters to buy him a country house for his 35th jubilee celebration. The school's curriculum was on the level of a conservatory, and there was a separate drama department and a museum of Ukrainian folk instruments. The school was directed initially by Lysenko and then by his daughter Mariana Lysenko (1912-18). Teachers included Lysenko, Hryhorii Liubomyrsky, Oleksander Myshuha, and Mariia Starytska. The school was the only Ukrainian higher music school of its day, and its influence in the development of Ukrainian music is reflected in the list of its graduates, which includes Kyrylo Stetsenko, Oleksander Koshyts, Lev Revutsky, and Mykhailo Mykysha. In 1918 the school was reorganized and renamed the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute...

STETSENKO, KYRYLO, b 24 May 1882 in Kvitky, Kyiv gubernia, d 29 April 1922 in Vepryk, Kyiv gubernia. Composer, conductor, teacher, and community activist. After graduating from the Kyiv Theological Academy in 1903 Stetsenko began teaching music at the pedagogical institute and conducting church and secular choirs, continued studying composition at the Lysenko Music and Drama School, and participated with leading Ukrainian musical figures in an unsuccessful attempt to establish an independent music publishing house. His activities led to his arrest and exile (1907-10) to a town in the Donbas, where he taught music in a local school. He ceased virtually all his creative work until 1917, when he was recruited to the music department of the Ukrainian National Republic Ministry of Education. Although many of his activities involved organizing and teaching, he also returned to composing and conducting. He took a position as a priest in the village of Vepryk (south of Kyiv) in 1920 after he fell out of favor with the new Soviet authorities. He died of typhus while tending to the sick in his village during a pestilence...

LEONTOVYCH, MYKOLA, b 13 December 1877 in Monastyrok, Bratslav county, Podilia gubernia, d 23 January 1921 in Markivka, Haisyn county, Podilia gubernia. Composer, conductor, and teacher. After graduating from the theological seminary in Kamianets-Podilskyi in 1899, he worked as a teacher at various schools in Kyiv gubernia, Katerynoslav gubernia, and Podilia gubernia. In spite of the popularity of his compositions, Leontovych was modest about his work and remained a generally unrecognized figure until he was brought to Kyiv in 1918-19 to teach at Kyiv Conservatory and the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute. He died in tragic circumstances several years later, being shot by a Cheka agent. Leontovych's musical heritage consists primarily of more than 150 choral compositions inspired by the texts and melodies of Ukrainian folk songs. His 'Shchedryk' is particularly renowned. It is better known as 'The Carol of the Bells' in its English version, authored and premiered in 1936 by conductor-educator P. Wilhousky. It has experienced over 150 transmutations in re-arrangements for differing vocal and instrumental combinations...

STEPOVY, YAKIV, b 20 October 1883 in Pisky, near Kharkiv, d 4 November 1921 in Kyiv. Composer, teacher, and music critic. Recruited to sing with the Saint Petersburg court choir in 1895, he studied at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1902-9 under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. He lectured at the Kyiv Conservatory from 1917 and was musical director of the Muzychna Drama Theater and the State Vocal Ensemble from 1919. He died after contracting typhus in Kyiv and was buried in Baikove Cemetery. Stepovy played an important role in establishing a national school of Ukrainian music and is regarded (together with colleagues such as Kyrylo Stetsenko) as one of the luminaries of Ukrainian music. His compositions include numerous art songs for solo voice to the words of Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, Pavlo Tychyna, Maksym Rylsky, and others; instrumental works such as sonatas, rondos, a fantasia, a cycle of miniatures for piano (1909-13); and two suites for orchestra based on Ukrainian folk songs. Among his works for choir are 50 Ukrainian folk song arrangements...

KURBAS, LES (Oleksander), b 25 February 1887 in Sambir, Galicia, d 3 November 1937 in a Soviet prison on the Solovets Islands. Outstanding organizer and director of Ukrainian avant-garde theater, filmmaker, actor, and teacher. In 1907-8 he studied philosophy at the University of Vienna and drama with the famous Viennese actor Josef Kainz. After graduating from Lviv University in 1910, he worked as an actor in the troupes of the Hutsul Theater (1911-12) and Lviv's Ukrainska Besida theater (1912-14), founded and directed the Ternopilski Teatralni Vechory theater in Ternopil (1915-16), and worked at Sadovsky's Theater in Kyiv (1916-17). After the February Revolution of 1917 Kurbas reorganized an actors' studio he had founded in 1916 into the Molodyi Teatr theater (1917-19) in Kyiv and became the secretary of the journal Teatral'ni visty...

BEREZIL (March). A theater established in 1922 in Kyiv by the Berezil artistic association as an experimental studio under the artistic direction of Les Kurbas. Achieving recognition as Soviet Ukraine's national theater, it was located in Kyiv until 1926 and then moved to the then capital, Kharkiv. At its height Berezil included six actors' studios (three in Kyiv, one each in Bila Tserkva, Boryspil, and Odesa), close to 400 actors and staff members, a directors' lab, a design studio, a theater museum, and ten committees, including a 'psycho-technical' committee that used applied psychology to develop new teaching methods for actors and directors. Berezil also published a journal, Barykady teatru (Theatrical Barricades)...

MOLODYI TEATR (Young Theater). A theatre troupe in Kyiv headed by Les Kurbas from 1917 to 1919. The core group of actors consisted of graduates of the Lysenko Music and Drama School. Most of the productions were directed by Kurbas, although Hnat Yura, V. Vasilev, and Semen Semdor also directed shows. Anatol Petrytsky was the main stage designer, but Mykhailo Boichuk was invited to create sets for several important productions. Kurbas's articles, such as the 'Manifesto' (in Robitnycha hazeta, 1917), called for a new Ukrainian theatre and outlined the artistic goals of the group. Molodyi Teatr rejected the Ukrainian ethnographic repertoire and presented modern Ukrainian plays and world classics. Kurbas strived to create an intellectual and philosophical theater whose ultimate aim was to return to its ritualistic roots and to become once again some form of a religious act...

KRUSHELNYTSKY, MARIAN, b 18 April 1897 in Pyliava, Buchach county, Galicia, d 5 April 1963 in Kyiv. Actor and play director of Les Kurbas's school; educator. Making his stage debut in 1915 in the Ternopilski Teatralni Vechory theater, he subsequently acted in the Ukrainian Theater in Ternopil (1918, 1920-1), the New Lviv Theater (1919), the Franko Ukrainian Drama Theater in Vinnytsia (1920), and the Ukrainska Besida Theater in Lviv (1922-4). Then he was one of the leading actors of the Berezil theater, and after Les Kurbas's arrest and the dissolution of Berezil, Krushelnytsky was appointed in 1934 artistic director and chief play director of the Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theater. He modified the theater's profile, particularly its repertoire, according to the demands of socialist realism...

BUCHMA, AMVROSII, b 14 March 1891 in Lviv, d 6 January 1957 in Kyiv. Prominent stage and screen actor, director, and teacher. Buchma began his stage career at the Ruska Besida theater in Lviv in 1910. In 1917 he studied at the Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kyiv. In 1920 he worked in the Kyiv Ukrainian Drama Theater and in 1923-6 in the Berezil theater, where he played such memorable roles as Jimmie Higgins in an adaptation of Upton Sinclair's novel, Leiba in an adaptation of Taras Shevchenko's Haidamaky, Jean in Prosper Merime's La Jacquerie, and the Fool in William Shakespeare's Macbeth. At the same time he became a film actor and later left the theater to devote himself solely to the cinema (1926-30). The main roles in which he appeared in these years were those of Jimmie Higgins, Mykola Dzheria, Taras Shevchenko, Taras Triasylo (in films of the same titles), the leading role of Hordii in The Night Coachman and the German soldier in Oleksander Dovzhenko's Arsenal...

LIATOSHYNSKY, BORYS, b 3 January 1895 in Zhytomyr, d 15 April 1968 in Kyiv. Composer and teacher. He graduated in law from Kyiv University in 1918, and then in music (studying under Reinhold Gliere) from the Kyiv Conservatory in 1919. He lectured at the conservatory from 1920 and was appointed professor of composition there in 1935. Liatoshynsky is one of the initiators and main representatives of the modern school in Ukrainian music, using expressionistic style and atonal technique. His mastery of composition and instrumentation is shown throughout his repertoire. His contribution to Ukrainian music lies in a skillful blending of Ukrainian themes with contemporary European style. In spite of a harsh criticism of his work by the Party critics and the official ban on such compositions as his Symphony No. 2, Liatoshynsky did not compromise and never adhered to the style of socialist realism. Together with Lev Revutsky, he exerted a profound influence on Ukrainian composers of the younger generation. Among his students were such prominent composers as Valentyn Sylvestrov, Leonid Hrabovsky, Yevhen Stankovych, and others...

REVUTSKY, LEV, b 20 February 1889 in Irzhavets, Pryluky county, Poltava gubernia, d 30 March 1977 in Kyiv. Composer, teacher, music activist. He graduated from the Kyiv Conservatory in 1916, having studied with Mykola Lysenko, Hryhorii Liubomyrsky, Hryhorii Khodorovsky, and Reinhold Gliere. After being appointed in 1924 to the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in Kyiv, Revutsky reached the height of his composing career. His compositions were innovative and continued the trend of the Ukrainian national school into the Soviet era. His two symphonies (1920 and 1926), which showed his keen ear for orchestral color, were notable developments in Ukrainian music. His chamber and piano works (preludes for piano, works for violin and cello with piano) displayed a fresh musical language, influenced by impressionism, and technical skill. With the escalation of Stalinist terror in 1934, Revutsky was severely criticized by the authorities for his Piano Concerto No. 2. He subsequently spopped composing new music and focused his energies in the area of teaching...

KOZYTSKY, PYLYP, b 23 October 1893 in Letychivka, Lypovets county, Kyiv gubernia, d 27 April 1960 in Kyiv. Composer and educator. A graduate of the Kyiv Theological Academy (1917) and the Kyiv Conservatory (1920), where he studied under Boleslav Yavorsky and Reinhold Gliere, he taught at the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in Kyiv (1918-24), the Kharkiv Music and Drama Institute (1925-35), and the Kyiv Conservatory. He was a founding member of the Leontovych Music Society, whose magazines Muzyka (1923-7) and Muzyka masam (1928-31) he edited, and president of the Union of Composers of Ukraine (1952-6). His works include two operas, the orchestral suite Kozak Holota (1925), a symphonic poem, string quartets, preludes for piano, choral works, church music, arrangements of folk songs, and film and drama scores (notably, to some productions of Les Kurbas' Berezil theater). Influenced by expressionism, Kozytsky's work often draws upon Ukrainian folk songs and is tied to the national school of Ukrainian classical music, established by Mykola Lysenko...

VERYKIVSKY, MYKHAILO, b 20 November 1896 in Kremianets, Volhynia gubernia, d 14 June 1962 in Kyiv. Composer, conductor, and teacher. He graduated from the Kyiv Conservatory (1923) in the composition class of Boleslav Yavorsky and then conducted the orchestras of the Kyiv Opera (1926-8), the Kharkiv Opera (1928-35), and symphony orchestras in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Moscow, and Ufa. He also taught at the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute and the Kyiv Conservatory. His works include the ballet Pan Kanovsky (1930, 2nd edn 1953); the Taras Shevchenko-based operas The Captain (1938) and The Servant Girl (1940); operas to texts by Leonid Hlibov, Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, and Ostap Vyshnia; an oratorio on Marusia Bohuslavka; five cantatas; a concerto for piano and orchestra (1950); a number of orchestral works; a large body of piano music; chamber and church music; original choral works and arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs for chorus; and about 70 original solo art songs and settings of Ukrainian folk songs for voice and piano...

KOSENKO, VIKTOR, b 23 November 1896 in Saint Petersburg, d 3 October 1938 in Kyiv. Pianist, composer, and educator. A child prodigy pianist, student of A. Michalowski in Warsaw, and a graduate of the Petrograd Conservatory (1918), where he studied under Ivan Myklashevsky, Kosenko began to lecture at the Zhytomyr Music Tekhnikum in 1918, at the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in 1929, and at the Kyiv Conservatory in 1934. At the same time he gave piano concerts in different cities of Ukraine. His works, influenced by the neoclassical tradition in music, include a sonata for cello and piano (1923), Classical Trio for piano, violin, and cello (1927), a sonata for violin and piano (1927), Heroic Overture (1932), Moldavian Poem (1937), a piano concerto, three piano sonatas, a trio, a violin concerto, about 100 piano pieces, including 24 pieces for children (1936), and many art songs...

MEITUS, YULII, b 28 January 1903 in Yelysavethrad (now Kirovohrad), d 2 April 1997 in Kyiv. Composer. A graduate of the Kharkiv Music and Drama Institute (1931) in the class of Semen Bohatyrov, he worked as a composer for his entire life. His works include 14 operas, most notably Perekop (1939-40) and Haidamaky (1940-1) (both composed with Vsevolod Rybalchenko and Mykhailo Tits), Abadan (composed with A. Kuliev, 1942-3), Star over the Dvina (1951-5), Stolen Happiness (1958-9) based on the drama by Ivan Franko, and Yaroslav the Wise (1973); five orchestral suites; choral and choral-orchestral works on Ukrainian and Turkmen folk themes; art songs to texts by Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, and others; and music for the theater (most notably, for 13 of Les Kurbas' productions in the Berezil theater) and films. Fairly modern in style, Meitus is a notable representative of 20th-century Ukrainian music and in particular Ukrainian opera...